Global Warming
Glaciers melting, heat waves, sea-level risings, and both Arctic and Antarctic rise in temperature are all signs of global warming that we are experiencing today. If we do not find new ways of sustainable energy and quit omitting green house gases, then we could face potentially devastating natural disasters.
We are the reason there is a global warming issue today. The burning of fossil fuels and the deforestation are the two main issues. The burning of fossil fuels is omitting roughly half co2 or carbon dioxide into the air. The other half is made up of Chlorofluorocarbons, Methane, Nitrous Oxide and Tropospheric Ozone. The co2 that is released into the air is a result of organic substances decomposing. Some of these substances are oil, coal and other fossil fuels.
The co2 that is being released into the air because of our everyday needs, such as transportation or factories, is the main cause for almost all global warming related issues. An issue that we cannot control is the level of vapor in our atmosphere. The determining factor for how much vapor is in our atmosphere depends on how high the temperatures are. Because the greenhouse gases heat up our atmosphere, it traps more heat and in result, speeds up the warming process.
Some of the possible effects of global warming are the melting of polar ice caps, extreme changes in the world’s economy, and climate changes worldwide. The effects of global warming need to be taken seriously. At this point, not seeing an effect of global warming is inevitable, however, we can definitely take steps to decreasing the amount of resulting events and devastation they might cause. Comstockjosephelliot
Works Cited
"5 Deadliest Effects of Global Warming: Global Warming Effects, Causes of Global Warming and Effects on Global Warming." Environmental Graffiti: Offbeat Environmental News, Not Hip-Hop! Web. 25 Sept. 2009. <http://www.environmentalgraffiti.com/sciencetech/5-deadliest-effects-of-global-warming/276>.
"The Effects of Global Warming." Yahoo! GeoCities: Get a web site with easy-to-use site building tools. Web. 25 Sept. 2009. <http://www.geocities.com/TimesSquare/1848/global.html>.
"Global Warming Myths and Facts - Global Warming - Environmental Defense Fund." Environmental Defense Fund - Finding the Ways That Work. Web. 25 Sept. 2009. <http://www.edf.org/page.cfm?tagID=1011>.







Prokaryotes
Joseph Johnson
Prokaryotes are single-celled and the oldest dated organisms that exist (archaebacteria). Prokaryotic cells and fossils have been found in almost every conceivable environment on the earth. (2.) Prokaryotes are from the Monera group of the Five Kingdoms. Cells from the monera kingdom such as bacteria and cyanobacteria are prokaryotes. (1.) Prokaryotic cells lack both a nucleus and organelles that are found in eukaryotes. Prokaryotic cells do however, contain cytosol (cytoplasm), a single chromosome, and both a cell membrane and cell wall. The single chromosome, or DNA, of the prokaryote is located in the center of the cell in an area called the nucleiod. The cell membrane is composed of lipids (diglycerids), and the cell wall is made of a structural polysaccharide (cellulose). Some prokaryotes even have another membrane, which makes the cell resist crystal violet staining. A flagellum, a rudder-like device, affords the prokaryote the luxury of mobility. (2.) The prokaryote cells are very small, because of the ratio of surface area to volume. Prokaryotic cells feature three major shapes: rod shaped, spherical, and spiral. (1.) Instead of going through elaborate replication processes like eukaryotes, bacterial cells divide by binary fission. (1.)
Cited works:
1. <http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/prokaryotic_cells.html>
2. <http://facstaff.gpc.edu/~pgore/students/w96/joshbond/prok.htm>

NATURAL SELECTION (NICHOLAS ROEDER)
Natural selection is one of the basic threads of the grand scheme of evolution. The idea of natural selection was written by Charles Darwin in his book “The Origin of Species” (1859). This “Natural Selection” is the thought that species must adapt to their environment, such as avoiding predators or what how to swim, in order to insure their survival. In life, species go through many hardships, from predators, to eating food, etc… Many organisms of a species die because they cannot survive, thus making the survivor’s genes more prominent and common. Eventually the ones who survive more overtake the weaker until the weak traits are diminished. To make it clear through example; There are 5 red birds and 5 black birds. Over time the red birds are hunted down more frequently by predators due to their color and reproduce less often. Eventually the black gene is highly more common and overtakes the red gene until all are black. What happened was the black survived because of its color unlike the red bird which was being hunted down easily because of its color. Eventually, due to “Natural Selection”, the red gene became rare and the black very common. Without the black gene, the species would have most likely died off or become an almost extinct species. All in all, Natural selection is the stronger trait being passed on while the weaker trait dies off, so that the species may survive in its environment. Without this integral piece of evolution, many of today’s species would not be in existence.

Sources:
Berkeley University
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_25

Literature.org
http://www.literature.org/authors/darwin-charles/the-origin-of-species/index.html


SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS (BERNARD MAKINWA).
‘Sexual reproduction is the formation of a new individual following the union of two gametes’ (Biology Pages). It occurs in humans and most of other eukaryotes such as plants and animals. The gametes involved have different structures and they are contributed by different parents. The gametes have to be able to move so they can meet and unit and food is needed to nourish the developing embryo. In humans and most animals, sperm cells are the gametes required for males and eggs are required for females. Sperm cells can move around whereas egg cells stay at a spot, waiting to be fertilized by the sperm cells. The egg cells contain food.
The reproduction system in males produces the sperm and delivers it to the female gamete. The production of sperm specifically takes place in the testes. Sperm cells are a little bigger than the flagellated nuclei, each consists of a head which contains the chromosomes, a midpiece that contains the mitochondria which gives the sperm the energy to move, and a tail whose whip like motion propels the sperm cells. An adult male produces over 100 million sperm cells each day but they are moved into the epididymis where they undergo further maturation and are kept inactive.
The female is the main player in the game of reproduction. The success of the process mainly depends on them. The female has to manufacture eggs, she must be able to receive sperm from the male partner, provide a conducive environment for fertilization and implantation and nourish the developing baby before and even after birth. All a man has to do is just deposit the sperm into the woman’s vagina. Egg cells are formed in the ovaries and unlike in males, the initial steps to the production of eggs start before birth.
Ovulation has to occur so that eggs can be produced. It occurs about two weeks after menstruation. To ensure fertilization, sperm must be deposited into the vagina about 5 days before or on the day of ovulation. Sperm mixed with accessory fluids is called semen. Semen passes through the urethra and is expelled into the vagina. The sperm cells continue their journey into the uterus and up into the fallopian tubes. This is where fertilization occurs if an egg is present. Sperm movement is aided by the muscular contraction of the walls of the uterus even though they can swim several millimeters each second. Sperm may reach the egg within 15 minutes of ejaculation. At the point of ejaculation, several millions of sperm cells are released from the male’s penis but only dozens make it to the egg and only one of them actually fertilizes the egg.
Fertilization starts with the sperm head binding with the outer coating of the egg called the ‘zona pellucida’. The head then binds with the plasma membrane of the egg with the aid of the enzymes it releases. The egg immediately releases enzymes that prevent other sperm cells that arrive to come in. Development starts when the fertilized egg is within the fallopian tube. About a week after fertilization, implantation occurs and pregnancy is established. Cells from the trophoblast develop into chorion which goes on to make up most of the placenta. The placenta grows tightly fused to the uterus’ wall and it sort of connects the mother with the fetus. The fetus receives food, antibodies and oxygen and discharges carbon dioxide, urea and other wastes through the placenta. The umbilical cord connects the fetus to the placenta. After about 9 months, the cervix breaks and the baby is ready to be delivered. After birth, the umbilical cord is cut from the baby’s abdomen since it has the ability to live on its own now.

WORK CITED
Biology Pages
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html
September 24, 2009. September 25, 2009.

Reproduction in Animals: Sexual Reproduction
About.com
http://biology.about.com/od/basicgenetics/a/aa062708a.htm
September 25, 2009.


Sexual Reproduction: Shantel Holcomb What is sexual reproduction? Sexual reproduction is the process in which two parents come together to produce a new offspring. Before the process of sexual reproduction can occur, the mother must be able to produce an egg, which takes place in the ovaries, and the father must be able to produce sperm, which takes place in the testis. For the mother the process of producing eggs starts before she is born. When the mother is born, the first eggs are produced along with the follicle cell that surrounds the eggs then forming the primary follicle. After the primary follicle has been formed, the first meiotic division will have started but stops at prophase I. When the mother begins puberty and starts ovulating, that is the start of her womanhood and that is when she is ready for sexual reproduction with the male. For the male/father, his sperm has to go through the process of spermatogenesis before he is ready to reproduce. Spermatogenesis is the process where the sperm cells are developed. As the cells mature, they develop into spermatocytes, spermatids then spermatozoa which is the final sage. A mature sperm that contains the essential digestive enzymes to break through the plasma membrane is one starting point to reproducing an offspring. Each day the male/father produces well over 100 million sperm cells, which have to go through the process of maturating, which are then released when he ejaculates. After knowing that the parents can produce properly, the process of sexual reproduction can occur. Works Cited Bio-Medicine. 2003-2009. Web. 24 Sept. 2009. <http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-definition/Spermatogenesis/>. Sexual Reproduction in Humans. 14 June 2009. Web. 24 Sept. 2009. <http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html#LH>. "Sexual Reproduction in Humans- The First Stage." S-Cool! 2002. Web. 24 Sept. 2009. <http://www.s-cool.co.uk/alevel/biology/reproduction/sexual-reproduction-in-humans-the-first-stages.html>.
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Evolution: Megan L. Hathaway Evolution can technically be defined as “a gradual process in which something changes into a different and usually more complex or better form” (www.allaboutscience.org). Many people turn the theory of evolution into more of a religious aspect than a scientific concept. All throughout grade school, middle school, and high school, students are taught pretty much in all science classes that evolution is simply the belief that humans evolved from monkeys. In most cases animals slowly evolve into a more specific organism. The species may evolve over a period of time due to the need to adapt to a new temperature, atmosphere, etc. Natural selection is what drives evolution (www.allaboutscience.org); but what is natural selection and how does it apply to evolution? According to David Krogn’s textbook, A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology, natural selection is a process in which the differential adaptation of organisms to their environment selects those traits that will be passed on with greater frequency from one generation to the next. Evolution was first introduced by Charles Darwin by observing that a finch changed over time. After studying the bird, he observed many other animals and observed that they too evolved over time. There is often a large dispute over evolution versus creationalism. Along with evolution is the belief that humans evolve from monkeys because monkeys share almost every similar quality as a human does. Evolution has been around for several hundred years and the theory is still being investigated. Although many scientists strongly believe in evolution, many have different personal beliefs of the theory. But overall it is proven that certain species do adapt to conditions over time leading to this theory of evolution. The other aspect, such as an animal evolving into a whole new species, is still being researched and will continue to be researched for many years to come.
Evolution: Future Life on Earth- Devin Goyal
The future of planet Earth is on the minds of every scientist in the world. Scientists are striving to find ways to understand how Earth will evolve over time. There are many hypotheses and theories scientists have come up with and applied to Earth, but none of them have given scientists a concrete answer about Earth’s future. One theory that astronomers have come up with is based on the discovery of a new planet, in another solar system, orbiting a red giant star (Locke). Astronomers believe that this discovery could give us clues to what will happen in the future to our solar system, in five billion years, when our own younger sun becomes a gigantic old star (Locke). They call this planet an exoplanet, which means a planet in another solar system (Locke). They believe that it’s about six times the mass of Jupiter and orbits about 40 percent closer to its star than Earth does around the sun (Locke). Scientists believe this is the closest a planet can orbit a star without burning up (Locke). The star the exoplanet orbits is known as the red giant because it’s relatively cooler and a much older star. The exoplanet was found by astronomers at Penn State University and Nicolaus Copernicus University in Poland using the Hobby-Eberly Telescope at McDonald Observatory in the Davis Mountains of West Texas (Locke). They first noticed the exoplanet when they saw the red giant wobbling from its gravitational pull (Locke). Astronomers believe that a second planet could be orbiting the red giant, which would be a first. However, their discovery has yet to be published in the Astrophysical Journal (Locke). The theory that scientists have concluded upon after finding this exoplanet and red giant is that Earth will be destroyed by the sun when it becomes a red giant in 5 billion years extinguishing the human race. However, the effects of this could be beneficial to other planets and humans. Penn State astrophysicist Alexander Wolszczan believes that frozen planets that are far enough from the sun, such as Jupiter’s moon Europa, might actually warm up enough to sustain life.

Locke, F. Susannah. Scientific American Blog 2 Dec. 2008. 25 Sept. 2008.
<http://www.scientificamerican.com/blog/60-second-science/post.cfm?id=exoplanet-orbiting-red-giant-gives-2008-12-02>

Genes and the Environment: Brittany Lindsay
There has been a constant question in the world of the social sciences—whether we as humans are more influenced by the environment in which we are surrounded or by the genes we have inherited since birth. It’s a continuing dispute on nature versus nurture. This query has helped many scientists reason with the effects of genes and the environment on numerous aspects of human life. Countless tests have been performed over the past century and scientists and analysts have determined that some aspects of human life are influenced more so by one than the other. It generally just depends on the focus area being studied. According to Jeanna Bryner with livescience.com, researchers are finding that some genes have been recently linked to specific human behaviors and sicknesses. According to her findings, some genes have been linked to such things as the amount of cigarettes one will smoke, Alzheimer’s disease, Sprinting, and alcoholism. According to Susan Bergeson at the University of Texas at Austin, there has been”20 gene candidates that could influence excessive drinking”. However, on the other side of the spectrum, there are others who have discovered that the environment has had major effects on similar subjects in human behavior. Some researchers have found that women become more influenced to smoke based on peer pressure and other environmental reasons. Also, researchers have found that men are more likely to develop Parkinson’s disease due to contact with insect killers and other chemicals. Some Researchers believe that both genes and the environment are instrumental in certain aspects of human behavior. In the case of alcoholism, according to Henry Kranzler who is a professor at the University of Connecticut’s School of Medicine,”It is now widely accepted that genetic variation predisposes to alcohol and drug dependence, but it's also very clear that without environmental factors—including access to alcohol and drugs—addictions don't occur”. Based on the above information, it is clear that the effect of nature versus nurture on human behavior is completely depending upon the situation. Scientists have not yet found that one is absolutely more influential than the other overall, but in the case of specifics one can definitely infer that wither genes or the environment has a profound effect. We can now determine the influences on various diseases and human behaviors that had it not been for the query of genes versus the environment, scientists may have never discovered. The above chart shows the influence on genes and the environment on different diseases and sicknesses. Sources. http://www.livescience.com/health/060718_nature_nurture.html http://www.proteomesoftware.com/Proteome_software_ed_Why_Proteomics.html




DNA
Everyone’s body has a different, yet specific set of instructions it follows when it comes to everyday functioning and your body’s development. These instructions are called your DNA. DNA stands for DeoxyriboNucleic Acid. Every living organism, and even some viruses, have DNA, commonly known as your genetic blue print. DNA acts almost like a recipe for you body. To more easily understand, DNA acts much like the alphabet. When you put letters together you form words, when you put DNA together, your genetic sequence is formed. Your genetic sequence is unique to you and you only.
DNA comes in strands, which are carried in segments call genes. To get technical, the chemical make up of DNA is two polymers, which are made of nucleotides, (a nucleotide is a base, connected to a sugar molecule, connected to a phosphate molecule) and backbones made of sugars and phosphates. Connected to the sugars, found in the backbone, is one of four possible bases. For example, A which stands for Adenine, G which stands for Guanine, C which stands for Cytosine, and T which stands for Thymine. These bases always pair up together the same way. A pairs with T, and G pairs with C. 99% of these bases are found in all humans. This information is ‘read’ within the cell, which causes the sequence of amino acids to fall into place. Ultimately, that sequence determines if we have brown or blue eyes, dark or light skin, red or black hair, or if we are tall and thin or short and stocky, and so on.
DNA strands seem to be twisted, or even tangled together, yet they run in opposite directions forming a winding stair-case appearance. This is called a double helix. Some people look at this as a ladder. The rungs on the ladder are the base pairs and the sugars are the up-and-down side parts of the ladder.
DNA is organized into structures called Chrosomes within the cell. DNA replicates when the body’s cells are splitting, yet it must duplicate beforehand. This step is crucial because it must have an exact copy of the present DNA for the new cell. The cell nucleolus is where you can find DNA in most living organisms, there it is called nuclear DNA. Yet in bacteria you can find DNA within the cytoplasm, there it is called mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).


SOURCES:
DNA is the vital and totally unique combination of sugars and proteins present in every cell in our body that make us different from one another.
"DNA." DNA. Wikipedia, 15 Sept. 2009. Web. 25 Sept. 2009. <en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA>.
"DNA's double helix." Fact Sheet. Web. 25 Sept. 2009. <http://www.genome.gov/images/illustrations/FactSheet_DNA.pdf>.
"The New Genetics: Chapter 1." The National Institute of General Medical Sciences. The National Institute of Health, 2006. Web. 25 Sept. 2009. <http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/thenewgenetics/chapter1.html#c1>.
"Welcome to the 2007 Calabria DNA Project." Calabria DNA Project. 10 July 2007. Web. 25 Sept. 2009. <http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.calabriadna.com/dna.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.calabriadna.com/&usg=__SB--EzGsXSKfNE17Y-7JZ-wyxqQ=&h=281&w=277&sz=11&hl=en&start=50&sig2=_ZfPLi9vWXT1Gh19Nr41Rw&um=1&tbnid=-0DougHPD-sc3M:&tbnh=114&tbnw=112&prev=/images%3Fq%3DDNA%26ndsp%3D20%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN%26start%3D40%26um%3D1&ei=-TC9StLjIcvClAee-8ShAQ>.
"What is DNA." Genetics Home Refernce. Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications, 18 Sept. 2009. Web. 25 Sept. 2009. <http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/basics/dna>.


Cloning (Christina Stewart) Cloning might seem like a fictional process in movies but it is an all too real process. Tadpoles in 1952 were the first animals to be cloned, which eventually led to first mammal, a sheep named dolly, being cloned in 1996. A clone is a genetic twin of a living organism. There are three types of cloning that exist, they include: Therapeutic, DNA, and reproductive. Reproductive cloning is specified as taking a gene of an animal that has existed and creating an exact copy of that animal. The scientists take a fully grown animals cell and places it into and egg of the same type of animal. The egg is them placed back into the female animals who’s egg was used. In DNA cloning scientists take specific parts of DNA and clone it millions of times until they have a full microbial cell. DNA cloning has help make advances in the research of numerous genetic disorders. The third type of cloning is Therapeutic, which involves the cloning of human stem cells. After five days of an embryo’s cells dividing the stem cells are removed, and in the process the embryo dies. Human being are not created from the cloning of the stem cells because in the process all the genetic information is destroyed. This type of cloning is how scientist hope to also cure genetic issues, and possibly even create replacement cells for damaged organs. Actual, fully functioning people have not yet been produced by the cloning process. Many countries and activists have over the years proposed a ban on the issue of human cloning. But for now in most places it is very legal, and there are hundreds of cloned animals in existence today.
Works cited
“Cloning Fact Sheet”www.ornl.gov. 2009. web. sept 25 2009.<http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/cloning.shtml>

“History of Cloning” www.allaboutpopularissues.org. 1. web. 25 sept 2009. <http://www.allaboutpopularissues.org/history-of-cloning-faq.htm>

Natural and Artificial Selection- Talia Stinson
Our population grows at an enormously fast rate. Just like in geometry, with the series of doubling numbers, the world’s population is exactly the same. It first starts out with two, then four, then eight, then sixteen and so on. Darwin uses this simple method of life called natural selection to describe his theories on evolution (“Tracking SARS”). Natural selection happens when an organism inherits a trait that will help them survive and reproduce more. Natural selection is dependent on the phenotype. For example, say there are some brown and green beetles. The green beetles usually attract birds which causes them to get eaten more likely that the brown beetles. Now there are a lot more brown beetles that will reproduce even more brown beetles. This will continue, more brown beetles will appear and more green beetles will disappear. Natural selection contains variation, differential reproduction, and heredity. The natural selection also affects the behavior (globalchange). Instead of organisms naturally evolving and inheriting traits, organisms can have their characteristic altered by artificial resources. Artificial selection is people taking two organisms and combining their traits purposely to create a new type of life form. Everything done in artificial selection is intentional (library.thinkquest). Animals usually tend to have the most results from artificial selection. Especially when it comes to the animals we eat. Humans cautiously select the meats of cows, chickens, and pigs to make sure the meat is safe and fresh for us to consume. Farmers and breeders have taken the idea of artificial selections a long ways (learner.org).
Work Cited
“Track SARS back to its source.” Understanding Evolution. University of California. Museum of Paleontology. 22 August 2008. http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/news/060101_batsars.

http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/selection/selection.html
http://library.thinkquest.org/C0118084/Gene/Genetic_variation/artificialselection.htm
http://www.learner.org/courses/essential/life/session5/closer1.html

Natural and Artificial Selection by: Vanessa Lopez

The idea of natural selection first came from Charles Darwin. Darwin –through his research- concluded that all species can reproduce to abnormally enormous amounts, which the Earth would not be able to support. Hence, limited resources of the Earth would then make it difficult for all creatures to survive, causing competition between species and allowing only a few creatures to continue living and reproducing (“Evolution”). Those who manage to survive would obviously have varied characteristics that compared to the other species, allow them to survive. Those characteristics are then passed on to their offspring which unevenly resemble their parents, but inherit the one characteristic that allowed their parents to survive. The first generation of offspring reproduces as well and their offspring more proportionately resemble their parents (“Evolution”). The species that didn’t inherit the adaptation would not be completely wiped out, but their existence would be minute compared to those species that did inherit the adaptation.
On the other hand, artificial selection is different yet similar to natural selection. A species would have a certain trait that is desirable, but instead of the parent generation mutually being drawn to each other, the parents are intentionally paired together. The pairing of these two parents usually has a driving force behind them. This driving force would be called humans (“Artificial Selection”). Humans notice characteristics that are desirable in a certain species and mate two creatures with the same desired characteristics (“Artificial Selection at Work”). Just like natural selection, the first generation of offspring would inherit the characteristic they would pass off that characteristic to their offspring. A good example of artificial selection would be dog breeding. Breeders look for a desired characteristic such as blue eyes in, lets say the species of Husky dogs , and find another parent species with the same characteristic and they mate. The majority of their offspring would have blue eyes except for maybe one or two which have brown eyes. If the dogs continue to bred like such, then eventually after so many generations all the offspring would be born with blue eyes. That is how each generation of offspring more proportionately inherit the desired characteristic or trait (“Evolution”).

Work Cited
“Evolution and Natural Selection.” Global Change 7 May 2009 <http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/selection/selections.html>
“Artificial Selection.” Think Quest 25 Sept. 2009
< http://www.library.thinkquest.org/c0118084/Gene/Genetic_variation/artificial selection.htm>

“Artificial Selection at Work.” Learner 25 Sept. 2009
< http://www.learner.org/courses/essential/life/session5/closer1.html >






How to save an ecosystem? (Eric Ralls)

First off, what is an ecosystem? It is a community of living things and the physical environment with which they interact. We as humans today are not conscious of how much we impact an ecosystem, and how we are easily ruining them every day. Here are some ways that a person could understand an ecosystem better and possibly help save one, climate change, forests, species, land use, oceans, and freshwater. With climate change it threatens the food and water that we and animals need to survive. If the climate is not the desired way it should be in a region then it will kill off whatever is living there. When we as humans are clearing out forests to make more space for whatever, we are killing the plants and trees which are “the lungs of the Earth”. Approximately 20% of the climate change and greenhouse emissions come from the killing of the plants and trees we are doing. While we are killing the forests and changing the climate, we are taking away homes of species. We are letting a specie go towards extinction at the rate of one every 20 minutes, that is ridiculous! To help save an ecosystem, we have to be very cautious of our land use. Another topic to help save an ecosystem is the use of carbon dioxide because an ocean is absorbing it. “Today, 90 percent of the oceans’ top predators are gone. Entire populations of fish, and the communities and economies they support, have collapsed. Seafloors look like war zones. Corals have been bleached white from chemical runoff.” As humans we need fresh water to stay healthy. “One out of every six people on Earth has no access to clean drinking water; two out of the six people lack adequate sanitation; and four out of six are afflicted by water-borne illnesses.” If we can maintain these things we could slowly start to save ecosystem after ecosystem, and make a huge change in today’s world.

Works Cited
http://www.conservation.org/learn/ecotourism/pages/ecotourism.aspx
Fungi- Camilla Jones Fungi are eukaryotes. They help decompose dead plants and animals to create new nutrients. Fungi use enzymes to digest so they can eat. They digest outside of their bodies, and let loose enzymes to break down the soil so they can get nutrients. There are seven types of fungi: Chytridiomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota. The most common group is the Basidiomycota, which includes mushrooms. Fungi produce spores that spread, mostly by the wind. The spores can be sexual or asexual, meaning that they can produce with another partner (sexual) or they can produce offspring on their own self (asexual). Some fungi are parasites so that means that they attach to plants, animals, and other compatible hosts and get nutrients from them. Fungi come in different shapes and sizes. They can come in the form of molds, yeasts, mushrooms, the shape of a cup, jelly looking, and can look like selves. There are over 70,000 species out there. All fungi is not edible, in fact, some are deadly to animals including humans. For example, if the destroying angel is ingested, the poison will spread quickly and damage the liver and kidneys before the consumer realizes it. There is a plus side to fungi; if it wasn’t for fungi we would have some of the best products out there, such as penicillin for the ill, yeast for bread and beer, and mushrooms to pick on top of pizza. Fungi play an important role in the world and it deserves to have a kingdom of its own. Works Cited Bora, Chandramita. "Types of Fungi". September 23, 2009 <http://www.buzzle.com/articles/types-of-fungi.html>.
"Characteristics of the Fungi". September 25, 2009 <http://www.biology-online.org/articles/fungi/characteristics_fungi.html>.
"Edible and Poisonous Fungi". September 25, 2009 <http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/Andes/8046/edible.html>. Kornfield, Ari. "Natural Perspective: Fungus Kingdom". September 23, 2009 <http://www.perspective.com/nature/fungi/index.html>. Volk, Thomas J.. "The Kingdom Fungi". Unviersity of Wisconsin-La Crosse. September 24, 2009 <http://www.uwlax.edu/BIOLOGY/VOLK/FUNGI3/sld009.htm>.




Genes vs. Enviornment (Catherine Hughes):The issue of nature versus nurture has been an argument between scientists for quite some time now. We obviously get our physical traits such as eye color and attached or detached earlobes, but what about our personality traits? Do we adapt to our surroundings or are our likes and dislikes previously determined for us? The first example I have is a personal one. My brother, “Jake,” was adopted from Korea and came to America when he was only three months old. He looks like a typical Asian. Jake has dark tan skin, black hair, and black slanted eyes. Because he grew up in a typical American suburb, however, he has no connection with Asian foods, customs, or personalities. Jake openly shows his emotions, which is typically not accepted in Asian cultures. He doesn’t enjoy eating Asian foods. Other than his outside appearance, he’s a typical all-American guy. This would support the “nurture” side of the argument. Another example is the ongoing discussion on homosexuality and the cause of it. A friend “Ronnie,” was born into a typical American family. As a child, he was encouraged to play with trucks and cars and in the mud, but he always preferred to do more “girlie” activities, like play dress up. In high school he was encouraged and even expected to date females. Ronnie, however, is homosexual. This would support the “nature” side of the argument. Maybe a more accurate view of the nature versus nurture debate is that there is some kind of mixture. It’s possible that some of our traits are learned and some are in our genetic makeup. Genes versus Enviornment (Erin Stansel): As the subject of heredity first started out with Gregor Mendel’s observations and processes and later continued on by scientists to discover that the chromosomes in DNA carry genes and that genes produced traits that life expresses, eventually the world would come to the infamous argument and questions of nature vs. nurture, or, genes vs. environment in human behavior. In other words, is the way one behaves foretold in them by their genes before they are even born? Or has peoples’ behavior adapted over time in response to occurrences they have experienced in life? Some scientists believe genes may encode more than just traits such as hair color, and that there may be conceptual traits in human DNA to encode intelligence, personality, and sexual orientation, etc. On the other side of the argument, while not totally ignoring the fact that genetic trends exist; those that believe the environment solely shapes human behavior believe genetics ultimately don't matter when determining behavior and that human behavioral features start from the environmental factors of the upbringing in life. There are many issues scientists and geneticists bring up in debates to prove both or either sides of genes vs. environment such as do criminals that commit similar violent acts have a similar gene that makes them do so? Or, a new question that came up in Harvard University’s studies, suggests there may be a “gay gene” that determines sexual orientation. However, a study on nurture vs. nature in Metaphor, Sociobiology, and Nature vs. Nurture: Biological Battle of the Century suggests, “If environment didn't play a part in determining an individual's traits and behaviors, then identical twins should, theoretically, be exactly the same in all respects, even if reared apart. But a number of studies show that they are never exactly alike, even though they are remarkably similar in most respects” (paragraph 8). Although we determine who we will become in life and not our genes, there may be more to behavioral genetics than we know now. With the right research and studies, hopefully there will be a conclusion to this everlasting argument! Work Cited: “Metaphor, Sociobiology, and Nature vs. Nurture: Biological Battle of the Century” 25 Sept. 2009 http://ww2.lafayette.edu/~vast/whitnell.html Whitnell Keli

The Development of Organisms (Janie Hayden): About 4.5 billion years ago, our earth was a cooling molten rock. Once earth cooled all the way, rocks began to form, and the life of organisms began. The first found evidence of prokaryotic living organisms date back to over 3.5 million years ago, and the first eukaryotic organisms were produced around 2.5 million years ago. After the first eukaryotic organism it took over 1.5 million years for organisms with vertebrae to form. There are three eras that describe the evolution of organisms up until today. They are Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic Eras. The Paleozoic Era is divided up into six periods. The first period, the Cambrian, consisted of only aquatic animals and the formation of the first vertebrae. It was not until the third period, Silurian that jawed fishes began to develop, and the first land plants and animals are found. The middle periods of the era were the formation of amphibians, land organisms, bony fish, sharks, reptiles, and coral form. In the last period of the Paleozoic era insects and reptiles spread around the planet. The second Era, Mesozoic, began about 248 million years ago and ended about 144 million years ago. During this era there were three periods. The first mammals appear, along with birds and modern fish. The dinosaurs appear, dominate, and become extinct. Today we humans are currently living the Cenozoic Era. It consists of two periods; the first Tertiary and the period now, Quaternary. During the Tertiary period modern mammals formed, along with primates and the human family. The current period, Quaternary consists of modern humans and their dominances and predicts another mass extinction event. Work Cited: “A brief History of Life on Earth” 25 Sept. 2009 http://animals.about.com/od/animalswildlife101/a/briefhistoryofl.htm/ Klappenbach, Laura

Bio-option for sustainable energy (Zachary Manthos): One bio-option for sustainable energy is the burning of Biomass. Biomass is organic material that is made from plants and animals. Energy is absorbed from the sun and stored in plants which are then eaten by animals. Although the energy does not come directly out of the organic material, we burn it to drive steam powered plants. Now some of the different types of Biomasses are wood, garbage, and Biogas (methane gas). Wood has been used as the main source of energy until the mid 1800’s when coal came in to the mix of sources for fuel. Although wood is still being used today. It is used by manufacturing plants that make wood products to power their own plants. A newer source of biomass is garbage. Garbage is not the most efficient source of energy. It takes 2000 pounds of garbage to get as much energy as 500 pounds of coal but it serves two roles. One we burn it in to power our steam plants and since we burned it we have lessened the amount of space need to store all of our waste. Now Biogas is the only one of these that is considered to be “green”. Biogas or methane gas has a couple ways of being collected. One way it can be collected is from farmers. Manure when put in a tank for a while will release methane gas which farmers collect. The farmers can either keep and use the biogas for energy or they use it and sell the energy back to the energy grid. Another place to collect methane gas is in a landfill. Actually it is a new requirement for landfills to collect methane gas because it is a pollutant and it is dangerous to the environment and to people. Biogas is considered to be “green” because methane is a stronger green house gas than carbon dioxide. Work Cited: "Biomass" 23 Sept. 2009 http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/kids/energy.cfm?page=biomass_home-basics

Triploid Oysters - John Hackemer
Triploid Oysters are organisms that have been developed to benefit the human population as a more consistent food source. Oysters are defined as any of a variety of marine bivalve mollusks. These organisms have a rough irregular shell that is closed by a single adductor muscle. Oysters come from the family Ostreidae and also include the commercially important shellfish.
Oyster farmers are starting to realize the exceptional potential of harvesting triploid oysters, over the natural diploid type. The process of creating the triploid oyster is very simple. It is achieved by breeding a tetraploid oyster, which has 4n chromosomes, with a diploid oyster with 2n chromosomes. The resulting tetraploid is born sterile and thus is sought to be grown by oyster farmers as very marketable merchandise, especially for supply during the summer months.

One reason these oysters are preferred over diploids oysters because of the spawning condition that diploids must undergo. While undergoing fertilization, diploid oysters run the risk of being too soft and therefore a lot less appealing to eat. This newly developed oyster, which is created using tetraploidy techniques, presents commercial oyster farmers with the ability to have a steady supply of their product year-round.
Another reason that farmers are beginning to prefer triploid oysters is their growth rate. In a study performed on a farm in Port Stephens, Australia, Triploid Pacific oysters were observed as having a phenomenally fast growth rate. The oysters reached a whole weight of 55 g in 13 months versus diploids taking 20 months.
A third reason that farmers will likely prefer triploids is that their mortality rate is significantly lower, according to the same study on the farm in Port Stephens.

References:
Studies on triploid oysters in Australia: farming potential of all-triploid Pacific oysters,Crassostrea gigas(Thunberg), in Port Stephens, New South Wales, Australiahttp://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118667300/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0
"oyster."Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2009.
Merriam-Webster Online. 25 September 2009
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/oyster
VIMS scientist urges expanded testing of ‘triploid’ oysters, Chesapeake Bay Journal, November 2003.http://www.bayjournal.com/article.cfm?article=769





Cloning- Erica Powell
Most human beings wish to clone themselves on a daily basis. By doing so, they would be able to accomplish two tasks at the same time. However, cloned humans are walking around on this earth today. They are known as “identical twins.” Identical twins have the exact same genetic copy in one another just like clones do. When you choose to clone something, you are creating another organism that has the same genetic code as the object you are cloning. Many people refer to Dolly the sheep when the idea of cloning is called upon. Dolly was the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell, rather than an embryo.
There are two types of cloning: artificial embryo twinning and somatic cell nuclear transfer. Artificial embryo twinning is known as a relatively low-tech version of cloning. It occurs in a Petri dish instead of in the mother’s womb. This happens from a result of manually separating a very early embryo into individual cells and then allowing each cell to divide and develop on its own. Somatic cell nuclear transfer involves removing the nucleus of an unfertilized egg cell and replacing it with a somatic cell. (An example of a somatic cell would be a skin or blood cell.) Five to six days after the cell has divided, stem cells can then be used for research. Scientists hope that one day somatic cell nuclear transfer can be used to generate tissues and organs for transplants. This would be a big help in the saving of lives in humans.

Works Cited
"Cloning Dolly the Sheep." Animalresearch.info. 2007. Web. 23 Sep 2009. http://www.animalresearch.info/en/medical/timeline/Dolly.
"Somatomic Cell Nuclear Transfer." AAMC. 1995. AAMC, Web. 24 Sep 2009. http://www.aamc.org/advocacy/library/research/res0003.htm.
"The Future of Human Cloning." Globalchange.com. 2003. Global Change, Web. 24 Sep 2009. http://www.globalchange.com/clonech.htm.

Olamide Iyanda September 25, 2009 Biology 101 How to save an Ecosystem As I walk down the sidewalks of the Monroe Park, I notice that the beautiful green grass is cluttered with half-drunken bottles, cigarette buds, and random forms of paper and plastics. How could anyone deface such a lovely area? Do they know their actions have drear consequences? Today’s society is ruining the ecosystem as we know it for todays and the future’s generations. However, there are several changes and adjustments we can make to help prevent any further damage from happening. Method 1: Monitor what farmers grew over the months CIMMYT’s scientists have now developed new satellites to “minimize environmental damage” (Saving Ecosystem, Long-distance). The satellites are able to detect what was grown on an individual farm field. They are now even able to go back as far as months to see what was developed in the grounds. By doing this, we are now able to determine what crops are damaging the soil and what aren’t. Method 2: Controlling the carbon and nitrogen When crops are converted to the fields, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are released into the air, which causes the temperature to alter and further changing the rain to an acidic state. With temperature changing, the growth of the crops would be altered as well. They would also have a less chance of surviving with mixture of acid in the rain. Method 3: Crop pollination “Between 15% and 30% of the US food supply depends on animal-mediated pollination” (Conservation Planning for Ecosystem Services). With that being said, we must have a large quantity of natural pollinators animals such as bees to be able to pollinate plants that we humans can’t. They are a critically part of our society, enabling us with many crops that are important to our daily diet. If these methods are practiced in agriculture, we are then able to preserve our ecosystem. Source Otriz-Monasterio, Ivan. Saving Ecosystems, Long-Distance. October 2001. International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center. < http://www.cimmyt.org/whatiscimmyt/ar00_2001/asia/saving/ecosystems.html.> Chan, Kai M. A. Conservation Planning for Ecosystem Services. November 2006. Plos Biology. <http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0040379;jsessionid=483176AAC04611187DFFEB5F04A15900#pbio-0040379-b049>



Biodiversity and Its Relationship With Humans By Georgia Lee Spiers For centuries now, humans have inhabited the world and became abundant in almost every region. With the growth of our population, there comes many side effects. Biodiversity, which is the assortment of animal and plant species in their surroundings, has an effect on humans as well is becoming affected by humans. With these happenings, our plant and animal population is taking a hit from overpopulation, habitat destruction, and habitat fragmentation. When our local resources, like plants and animals, become threatened it threatens our own lives and sustainability. Population control is one of the most major difficulties we face today, whether it is a plant or animal population. Overpopulation in many areas can lead to major diseases spreading. Also, when one population overgrows another, it can be destructive and kill off the more weak species. An example of this is Hawaii. Before humans inhabited the island, it had an abundance of species found nowhere else in the world, including invertebrates, plants and birds. When we came there we introduced this environment with things they had never had to interact with before and new predators that they could not handle. Many of the snail species are now extinct and also over half of the birds that were living there. With overpopulation, habitat destruction can become a result and it is one of the most harmful things for trying to maintain biodiversity. When you take away a species’ habitat, it kills them slowly by taking away their food resources and their shelter. In many tropical settings deforestation is taking place and grasslands are being turned into farming land. The species that originally lived in these areas are being forced to leave and make due in a new environment, which either hurts them or hurts the other populations around them. Habitat fragmentation is human’s use of a species for medicine or agriculture while trying to preserve the species that is being affected. While usually our intentions to help these creatures and plants are good, it is never enough. When humans try to preserve the species and isolate them to a smaller, safe area, they usually end up making them go extinct. The places we put these animals are too small and are not satisfying to their needs to live prosperously. They also limit the gene pool because they are unable to migrate to new lands and find new mates. When animals and plants are faced with these forms of hardship, it has a major impact on them. Humans are hurting them faster than we can help them and in the end it is going to hurt us more. The extinction of species are going to be more harmful to our lives in the long run. As stated by Edward Otten, MD, “No scientist can predict what the impact of this amount of species loss over such a short time will be, but it cannot be for the better.” Works Cited Otten, MD, Edward J. "The Effect of Human Population on Biodiversity." Biodiversity and Human Health. 2000-2001. Web. 20 Sept. 2009. <www.ecology.com>. www.dictionary.com Sexual Reproduction in Humans- Dominique J. Taylor. When a male human and female human meet and find one another attractive, the majority of the time they fall in love. When two humans fall in love they sometimes may have sexual intercourse. This may result in fertilization, if protection isn’t used, which then makes them proud mommies and daddies. This is called Sexual Reproduction. Sexual Reproduction is when a male and female gamete to form a zygote which becomes a potential genetically offspring. This process begins with sexual intercourse between a male and a female. In the Male Reproductive system, they have a vas defense, accessory glands, urethra, epididymis, testis, and penis. Males generate new sperm every day. Sperm is made in the testis and then is stored in the epididymis. In the Female Reproductive system, a female has eggs, two ovaries, uterine tubes, a uterus, endometrium, cervix and vagina. A female has all their eggs at birth and it ranges from one to two million eggs. Also females have a menstrual cycle which is the main factor of why the offspring occurs. During a female’s cycle, they release an egg every 28 days. Depending on the person, it can range from 21 to 42 days. If this egg is met with a male sperm and is fertilized successfully, this is the beginning of those two humans’ baby girl or boy. During sexual intercourse, a male’s penis enters into a female’s vagina. When the male has an orgasm he releases the sperm and the sperm begins to break up into millions and travels up through the uterus. Whichever sperm fertilizes an egg first successfully turns that egg into a zygote which eventually becomes an embryo after the first cell division. After the first nine weeks of the development the embryo is called a fetus until birth. Pregnancy is typically nine months long but depending on the person and their condition it may be shorter or longer. When the fetus is ready to leave the uterus, it then becomes an infant. So there for, sexual intercourse between humans leads to human reproduction. This is how humans create our beautiful babies. It is the unity of a male and female which keeps our population growing. References “Krogh, David. “Human Reproduction, P. 540-542,549,553.” A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology. 2007. Microsoft Word file.” “www.goaskalice.columbia.edu/‌1639.html. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Sept. 2009”. “ www.biology-online.org/‌dictionary/‌Sexual_reproduction. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Sept. 2009.” Cloning-Davies, Andrea
Cloning is the creation of an organism that is an exact genetic copy of another (Genetic Science Learning Center). A clone has the exact DNA as the original. Cloning has been used in science for many years. This process has been experimented on organisms such as animals. However, the possibility of human cloning rose when Scottish Scientists at Roslin Institute created “Dolly” the sheep (Human Genome Project Information). This creation brought forth many interest and concerns.
There are several types of cloning; however, the most known one is reproductive cloning. These other cloning technologies can be used for other purposes besides producing duplicates. The three types of techniques are: reco mbinant DNA technology or DNA cloning, reproductive cloning, and therapeutic cloning (Human Genome Project Information).
The recombinant DNA technology is the transfer of a DNA fragment of interest from one organism to a self-replicating genetic element. This process has been around since the 1970’s and is common in molecular biology labs today. Reproductive cloning is used to generate an animal that has the same DNA as an existing one. An example of this technique is showcased through Dolly the Sheep, which was mentioned previously. However, an animal created using this technique is not exactly an identical clone of the donor. The clone’s DNA is the only thing that is a duplicate as the donor. Lastly, therapeutic cloning or embryo cloning is the production of human embryos for use in research. The goal of this purpose is to harvest stem cells to study human development and to treat diseases as well.
Recombinant DNA technology is vital for learning about other related technologies. Reproductive cloning can be used for repopulating endangered species. Therapeutic cloning is rarely used but may one day be used to produce organs for humans or healthy cells. Despite that cloning may be helpful in the near future it also has many downfalls as well. To begin with cloning is costly and highly inefficient (Human Genome Project Information). Cloning results in severe abnormalities and health problems. In addition, it has been revealed that clones do not have long life spans.

References/Work Cited:

• Human Genome Project, . "Cloning Fact Sheet." Human Genome Project Information. 11 May 2009. Human Genome Program, Web. 25 Sep 2009. <http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/cloning.shtml>.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

· Genetic Science Learning Center. "What is Cloning?." Learn.Genetics 25 September 2009 <http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/tech/cloning/whatiscloning/>


Temperature Change on Biomes -Gessica Rice There are five major biomes around the earth based on temperature, vegetation and type of life forms in their ecosystems. The biomes are classified as being Aquatic, Desert, Forest, Grasslands and the Tundra. In an article about forests they said that, “…the predicted rates of climate change will push climatic boundaries of biomes northward at a rate faster than the predicted rate of species migration” (Hanson). Which is saying that the weather changes to the atmosphere is changing earths biospheres which could be advantageous to some environments, for example one species of plant could grow better in warmer climates, or disadvantageous because to much of a change could melt the polar ice caps or disrupt natural animal migration. Any serious weather change can have an effect on any biosphere. For example the oceans, aquatic biosphere, transfer heat through the world and if the water were to become dramatically warmer it is possible for underwater currents to get disrupted which could upset the natural habitats of marine life. The temperature could also affect the rainforest and grassland biospheres because some life forms can’t grow with too much heat or too little rain, which could affect the plant life and the natural animal habitats, like mosquitoes thrive in warmer temperatures, but some trees can’t take the heat difference. The temperature surrounding them affects all biomes and is one of the things used to characterize those biomes. Any change could kill habitats or create them its only a major weather change that could seriously damage any specific biome. Works Cited “Global Climate Change” National Science Foundation (2002): 08 September 2009 <http://www.exploratorium.edu> Hanson, J. Andrew. Ronald P. Neilson. Virginia H. Dale. Curtis H. Father. Louis R. Iverson. David J. Currie. Sara Shafer. Rosamonde Cook. Patrick J. Bartlein. “Global Change in Forests: Responses of Species, Communities, and Biomes” BioScience Vol. 51 No. 9 (Sept 2001): 10 September 2009 < http://www.usgcrp.gov> “World Biomes” National Teachers Association (2001). 11 September 2009. < http://www.worldbiomes.com/>
The First Plants On Earth
Jessica Burrow
The first living organisms which resembled a plant appeared in the sea. Over three billion years ago, it was blue-green algae. Planet Earth’s atmosphere was unlivable for all oxygen breathing creatures. The air was made up of deadly carbon dioxide. Over several million years ago, the photosynthetic plants cleaned the atmosphere and filled it with oxygen. If plants had never had come along and revolutionized the atmosphere, we would have never evolved and would not be alive. Plants as in the kingdom Plantae, did not appear until 700 million years ago, the earliest evolutionary history of plants on land appears in the early Ordovician. The first land plants were non-vascular bryophytes. There plants lack circulatory tissues, their short, and are between 1 and 100 mm in thickness. Bryophytes could only survive in moist areas where all of the cells can easily take in water, so their spores could be dispersed easily. Some scientists believe that the first land plants set the stage for the colonization of the land by animals for sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in the biopolymer lignin. This increased the portion of the atmosphere containing oxygen which made it more available to the oxygen breathing animals. It helped animals develop skeleton, grow larger, and diversify. Land plants help lower levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. They have molecules called lignins, which contain carbon but do not readily decompose. After the plants dies, some of its carbon remains in the lignin and can become buried in the Earth through geologic processes, preventing those carbon atoms from returning to the atmosphere and effectively lowering atmospheric carbon dioxide. The biggest cooling affect that form the Snowball Earth came for the reduction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in plants and fungi, which when plants and fungi was living at this time.
Work Cited

"First Land Plants and Fungi." Bio-Medicine. Barbara K. Kennedy, 9 Aug. 2001. Web. http://news.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-2/First-land-plants-and-fungi-changed-earths-climate--paving-the-way-for-explosive-evolution-of-land-animals--new-gene-study-suggests-9353-4/.



Fungi -Courtney Walden
Fungi are made up of hyphae, which makes up “the fruiting body” .The hyphae is a slender tube like filament. Fungi also has a part named the mycelium .The mycelium is made up of hyphae which forms branching webs. The mycelium is usually underground, in wood or a source of food. The mycelium can cover a tiny black of space or can grow over vast amounts of areas. The cells walls of fungi are made of chitin .They are also multi-cellular. Organisms that are considered fungi include mushrooms; rust, morels, molds, and yeast . Fungi are in large categories called phlya .These categories are based on the sexual reproductive structures .The reproductive structures are called basidium . These categories are basidiomycetes, ascomycetes, and zygomycetes. The basidiomycetes are the largest known form of fungi. They are called the “club fungi” because their fruiting bodies have a club like shape. Ascomycetes are “cup fungi” because of their cup like shape .Zygomyetes is called bread mold because they are found usually on old bread. Fungi can produce sexually and asexually. The life cycle of fungi starts out with spores being released .these spores germinate ,and generate hyphae .The two hyphae cells fuse ,two hyphal cells come together and create one cell . While the two cells fuse the nuclei remain separate which is called the dikaryotic phase . This phase will go on until the “mushroom” or fruiting body will sprout above the ground . Then new spores will be released from the fruiting body .The separate nuclei will fuse , and also the genetic material . Then cells whose nuclei fuse will divide in meiosis , which will result in a set of new spores .The spores will be released which will set the cycle all over again.

Natural and Artificial Selection
Youn, Da Eun

Natural and artifical selection both influences the changes in all living organisms over an extent of time. Natural selection is caused by the environment around us, while artificial selection is caused by human behavior and influences.
Natural selection has three modes: stabilizing selection, directional selection, and disruptive selection. Stabilizing selection is when the intermediate of a character is favored over the lowest and highest extremes. For example, the weight of babies; based on statistics, there are few babies that weigh 3 pounds and few that weigh 9 pounds but the average or the mean weight of the babies is around 7 pounds. Children who weigh around 7 pounds are more likely to be healthy or survive. Babies with lowe birth weights and high birthday weights have the risk of not surviving compared to the average weight of 7 pounds. This is called the intermediate (7 pounds). Stabilizing selection is the most common type of selection in this world out of all three. Directional selection is unlike stabilizing selection. While stabilizing selection favors the intermediate, directional selection favors the extremes. Disruptive selection is where environmental factors or other factors affect the survival of organisms.
Artifical selection is where characteristics of living organisms are changed due to human influences. For example, animal breeders tend to breed different species together to get the result of a new species or to get the breeders’ wanted traits and characteristics of different animals into one. Artificial selection occurs all the time especially with plant reproduction. In order to get “prettier” flowers or different colored flowers, different flowers are bred so they cross and make a whole new breed of flowers. This all came from Gregor Mendel’s experiment with cross breeding peas. His experienment is basically artificial selection due to the fact he’s contributing human influence to cross different types of peas to get the result he wanted.

Work Cited
Krogh, David. A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. Print.



Bioremediation
Bioremediation is a strategy used to clean up some but not all environmental problems. Bioremediation works by using microorganisms or enzymes to return the environment to its natural state. Bioremediation targets hazardous areas and materials and turns them into harmless materials (Environmental Inquiry). A few examples of contaminations that bioremediation can help are: sewage, gasoline, crude oil, agricultural chemicals, and pesticides. Bioremediation is a more cost efficient way to clean up environmental problems as well as a healthier solution; bioremediation can solve the environmental problem on the spot by putting nutrients into the contaminated area opposed to removing the contaminated area which can cost more to dig up and could be hazardous to move from the area. The products used in bioremediation are usually harmless and natural like oxygen and water which is why most people prefer bioremediation over other forms of clearing up contaminants. (USGS)
Bioremediation is not done the same way every time it used, it has different strategies for different contaminations. Bioventing, biosparging, bioaugmentation, and in situ bidegradation are strategies of bioremediation that provide treatment on the spot. Bioventing is the most common technique used for bioremediation it allows only the needed oxygen to go through; ‘bioventing sends air through wells which then stimulates the indigenous microorganisms’ (M.Vidali). Some strategies of bioremediation that don’t treat on the spot are bioreactors and landfarming; which are used when the ground has been taken away from its original area. (M. Vidali) Landfarming for example is when the contaminated soil is laid on a ‘bed and then is periodically tilled until pollutants are degraded’ (M. Vidali). Bioremediation is mostly done on the spot, but there are some cases that it is done after the land has been removed.
Bioremediation on the down side does not work on everything; it mostly works on items that are biodegradable. Bioremediation can be a more difficult process and can also take a lot longer than other treatment removals such as incineration. (Transgalatic ltd.)
Bioremediation is becoming a more popular solution to cleaning up contaminations. The process is not completely sufficient yet because it can only work on certain contaminates; but it is the way to go in some cases because it is a healthier and cheaper solution.
By:Tia Savolainen


Works Cited
Bioremediation. 2006. Environmental Inquiry. 22 Sept. 2009 <http://ei.cornell.edu/biodeg/bioremed/>.
Bioremediation. An Overview. 2001. M. Vidali. 22 Sept. 2009 <http://old.iupac.org/publications/pac/2001/pdf/7307x1163.pdf>.
Bioremediation: Nature's Way to a Cleaner Environment. 01 Apr. 1997. U.S. Geological Survey(USGS). 22 Sept. 2009 <http://water.usgs.gov/wid/html/bioremed.html>.
What is bioremediation? 25 May 2005. Transgalactic Ltd. 22 Sept. 2009 <http://www.bionewsonline.com/w/what_is_bioremediation.htm>.


Natural and Artificial Selection
By: Chelsea Campbell
Professor Chupp

Artificial selection is the process in which a group or an individual is reproduced because of the desirable traits it possesses (Life Science). For example, when a plant, such as corn, is abnormally tall and produces a lot of ears it is likely to be a candidate of artificial selection (Life Science). When a plant or animal is picked to be bred because of these desirable traits artificial selection is taking place. This is all in order to improve the generations to follow in the years to come. Natural selection helps weed out the traits that are not as beneficial to the plant or animal species (Understanding Evolution). For example, if bird A has a better beak for cracking nuts than bird B, it will more than likely eat more and leave less food for bird B. This can cause bird B and others like it to starve to death or not be as healthy. This can also cause them to not be able to reproduce, thus not being able to pass on the less beneficial and effective beak to its offspring. Bird A will continue to thrive and reproduce while passing the beak down to its offspring. This process causes the majority of that particular species to be like bird A. Artificial selection and natural selection are both very similar in the sense of passing on the more beneficial trait, but it varies in the process of doing so. Artificial selection needs the help of humans in the reproduction process, where as natural selection occurs in the environment throughout the years naturally. Be it artificial selection, or natural selection, the goal stays the same. Creating a better, more effective, and healthier generation to follow is the goal strived by the environment and the human population.

Works Cited
"Natural Selection." Understanding Evolution. University of California Museum of Paleontology. 22 September 2009 <http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/news/060101_batsars>.

“Artificial Selection at Work.” Life Science. 22 September 2009 <http://www.learner.org/courses/essential/life/session5/closer1.html>





Genetically Modified Organisms Good or Bad? Shannon Nissen To start off a GMO is: A genetically modified organism which means the DNA had been changed or combined with another strand of DNA to make something better. When it comes to foods genetically modified foods are made to last longer and be larger. Some people like GMOs because of the fact that they make food last longer and get bigger. However, some people don’t like it because they would be ingesting extra chemicals into their body. Some benefits listed on Genomics website are more food stability for a growing population, shorter time for the foods to mature, and better yields of meat, milk, and eggs. However, the same website also lists some of the controversies having to do with GMOs. Some of these controversies are domination of world food supply by just a few countries, potential human health issues and environmental issues like unintentional cross pollination and harmful chemicals being used in animals and on fields.(1) Many people who are against GMOs shop at places like Whole Foods because they have a great selection of organic foods. In one article it states that some people are nervous to eat GMOs and make them popular for fear that farming will become too industrialized. This would push small farmers out of business. There could be a big benefit in GMOs, using them to clone genes in plants to make more antibiotics and such. In animals it has been proven risky to genetically modify them. Cloned animals tend to have long lists of problems. (2) Overall, GMOs could really benefit our society and societies around the world, but they could also cause conflict in the world. Having one or a few countries in charge of most of the world’s food would lead to a monopoly and capitalization. But, being able to create so much extra food that lasts longer could help many countries that are impoverished and have trouble growing their own crops. It would really take a lot of time to weigh out all of the pros and all of the cons to GMOs. I think for the most part they could really benefit our society. Works Cited 1. No Exact Author. Genetically Modified Foods and Organisms 05 Nov. 2008. Human Genome Program. 22 Sep. 2009 < http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/gmfood.shtml> 2. Phillips, Theresa. What Are GMOs? N.D. Biotech/Biomedical. 22 Sep. 2009 < http://biotech.about.com/od/faq/f/GMOs.htm>



Human Health and Biodiversity - Melissa Nester Every day we go about our lives maintaining the same routine without much thought. Yet we should stop to consider how the ecosystem in which we live really does affect our health and well-being. First, let us clearly understand what is meant by an ecosystem. It is simply defined as a group of living organisms that all live together in a specific area functioning together as a unit (2). Around the world we see different types of ecosystems such as the tundra or the desert. But each plays an important role as they each have an effect on our health. Some examples would include the tropical forest trees provide the oxygen that we use to breathe and the mountains that filter our water. Each of these is in a different ecosystem, yet each has in its own way supported us in our daily lives. Yet, what are you doing to these ecosystems? How are we treating something that helps us survive? As the human population grows, there is a higher demand for housing and businesses to sustain the manner of life to which we are accustomed. Think of how many trees have been cut down where you live in the past five years. How many plants and animals lost their homes because we as humans required more space to grow? What it is interesting is that some believe that because of what we are doing to the environment, we are more susceptible to certain sicknesses such as asthma (1). So what can we do to help others around and ourselves sustain our ecosystems and thus maintain our health? It all starts with giving a little more time and attention to the environment around us. As we care for it and help sustain it, our health and happiness may just increase to much greater measures. References: 1. Dougherty, Joseph. Biodiversity and Human Health. “Biodiversity and Human Health”. 2000. < http://www.ecology.org/biod/>. 2. “Ecosystem”. Biology Online. July 2008. <http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Ecosystem>.
Kelly Jones Biology 101 Professor Chupp September 25, 2009 Fungi: The Mushroom Fungi are closely related to plants and animals but they have a few distinguishable characteristics that define them and allow them to constitute one of the six kingdoms of life. Fungi are similar to plants in the sense that they have cells walls, are fixed in one spot, and grow in the ground. However, unlike plants, fungi are incapable of producing their own food through photosynthesis and therefore are considered heterotrophs. This means that they consume existing organic material by releasing digestive enzymes to break down matter. Unlike animals, fungi do not break down food internally but rather externally by releasing digestive enzymes through tube like threads. Fungi have plant and animal characteristics but this distinctive method of consuming nutrients is what differentiates fungi from plants and animals. One universally identifiable fungus is the mushroom which has both positive and negative properties. Mushrooms have two very distinct features; they are used in cooking and they are used as a harmful drug. There are thousands of different species of mushrooms and of those only about 50 are toxic. Mushrooms have many nutritional benefits such as, they are low in calories, are cholesterol free, and have a very minute amount of fat and sodium. However, mushrooms that are taken as a drug contain Psilocybin which causes the user to experience hallucinations. “Magic mushrooms” have a variety of effects that include nausea, distorted perception, nervousness, and potentially death if too many are consumed. Mushrooms are just one fungus that can cause harmful effects but despite the negative effects fungi serve one very important purpose; they breakdown dead organic material. Works Cited “Mushrooms.” The Partnership for A Drug Free America. Web. 24 Sept. 2009. http://www.drugfree.org/Portal/Drug_Guide/Mushrooms Krogh, David. A Brief Guide to Biology with Phiysiology. Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2007.





Bacteria Kingdom Vu-An Phan: Domain Bacteria is made up of microbes, the tiny creatures that are invisible to the naked eyes. Bacteria are prokaryotes which are the organism that have their DNA outside of the cell nucleus. Only bacteria and archaea are prokaryotes, all other organism belong to the eukaryotes group which have the DNA in the nucleus. Beside of lacking cell nucleus, many additional features are also used to define bacteria. 1. Bacteria have no membrane-bound organelles such as nucleus. Ribosome is the only organelle of bacteria and it is not surrounded by a membrane like other organells. 2. Bacteria cell walls are made with peptidoglycan, a polymer of monosaccharide with amino acid. 3. Bacterial DNA is not associated with histone proteins. 4. Ribosome activity in inhibited by the antibiotics streptomycin and chloramphenicol. 5. Bacteria are single-celled and their cell are very small compared to other eukaryotic cells. However, bacteria cell can live and produce by themselves. 6. Bacteria are asexual reproduction organism with binary fission or simple cell splitting.
There are currently 4,500 species of bacteria and archaea have been indentified and they are categorized based on the following features: ·
- Many bacteria are categorized by their mode of function, or how they metabolize resources. · - Some bacteria are distinguished by their ability to produce endospores, resistant bodies that contain the genetic material and a small and a small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by a durable wall. · - Bacteria are distinguished by their means of motility,whether by flagella, corkscrew motion, or gliding through simply material that they secrete. · - Bacteria are classified into one of three shapes: cocci (spherical),bacilli(rod shaped),and spirilla(spirals). · -Bacteria are distinguished by the effect of the oxygen to their body. Some bacteria use it for respiration, some bacteria are poisoned by oxygen and some bacteria doesn’t need bacteria at all. · -Some bacteria can make their own food by photosynthesis while other ingest food from other sources.
Work Cited
Campbell, (1999). Biology. CA: Addison Wesley Longman.Print
Krogh, David. Brief guide to biology with physiology. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. Print
Antonia Louise Tribble Many wonder where in fact animals came from. People have tried to explain this for years, some say we came from monkeys, and others believe God created animals. Scientist has researched the possibility of these two factors and many other factors. All have come up with different answers many logical and some not so much. The truth is animals could not have made it to earth without the protective ozone layer there would be too much UV radiation,”(1). It has in fact been proven that “animals evolved in the sea, and that is where they remained for at least 600 million years,” (1). Animals remained in the sea until the ozone layer evolved otherwise we would not be able to live even today. Scientists have proven that we evolved from the sea because “sponges are at the base of our genes,” (2). Many of our tissue match or are similar to the genetics of living organisms in the sea. There has been an “improvement over comparative genomics methods which allow for a limited analysis of genes or animals,” (2). This information presents a whole new idea of how animals evolved. This will be a debate for many years to come because none of us were alive back then when the first animal was created. Works Cited "The History of Animal Evolution." School of Science & Engineering - The University of Waikato. Web. 23 Sept. 2009. <http://sci.waikato.ac.nz/evolution/AnimalEvolution.shtml>. Tree Of Animal Life Has Branches Rearranged, By Evolutionary Biologists." Science Daily: News & Articles in Science, Health, Environment & Technology. Web. 23 Sept. 2009. <http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/03/080305144221.htm>. "Tree Of Animal Life Has Branches Rearranged, By Evolutionary Biologists." Science Daily: News & Articles in Science, Health, Environment & Technology. Web. 23 Sept. 2009. <http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/03/080305144221.htm>.

"Cloning Bacteria for Vaccines"
Rebekah Rubin
Cloning bacteria is becoming a useful process for developing vaccines to help prevent diseases. A vaccine works by exposing a patient to an antigen multiple times so the body can develop a faster immune response. An antigen is any substance that comes from a pathogen that’s capable of producing a response, “this could be a disease causing agent such as part of a bacterium or virus or could be a particle such as pollen or dust”(scizmic, 2009). Modern biology has opened new doors as they have made it easier to clone bacteria and certain viruses. Scientists have been able to clone bacteria and express it as a “protein antigen in yeast, bacteria or mammalian cells in culture.” They do this by taking the DNA to be cloned and inserting it into a plasmid vector which is turned into a recombinant plasmid. The scientists then mix a bacterial chromosome with the recombinant plasmid. If the bacterial chromosome takes on the plasmid then the cell will be multiplied and each new cell will have the same plasmid. The protein from theses cloned cells can be used in vaccine production. There are many pros and cons to using cloned bacteria cells in vaccinations. Some of the pros are that the cells are easily created and stable, once they have the recombinant plasmid in one they will all have it and it can’t go back to the virus it once was. The cons consist of it being poorly immunogenic and they can have poor CTL response which is, cells that “recognise (viral) antigens which have been synthesised within cell's nucleus or cytosol, and which have been degraded” (Microbiology, 2007). Although there are a few negative aspects of using cloned bacteria to treat disease the positive outcomes that could be possible outweigh them. Scientists should continue their work in this area to increase the number of vaccines available. Since they can be easily created, larger numbers could be used in areas that have less access to medical treatment to help stop the spread of common diseases.
REFRENCES
“Scizmic” 22 Sept 2009. http://www.scizmic.net/downloads/vaccinations/3_vaccinedef.pdf
“Antiviral Immunity” 23 August 2007. 22 Sept 2009. http://www.microbiologybytes.com/iandi/8a.html
“Biology of the Prokaryotes” By Joseph W. Lengeler, Gerhart Drews, Hans Günter Schlegel. 9 Feb 1999. 23 Sept 2009.
Diagram: http://lh4.ggpht.com/microrao/R49Ymq-iYPI/AAAAAAAAA_Q/kwBH7rBHevA/s400/ecoli_70.gif.jpg





The Theory of Evolution: Natural and Artificial Selection
Iashia Newman


Evolution is the continuous change of all forms of life, including humans. A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology by David Krogh explains it as, “any genetically based phenotypic change in population of organisms over successive generations.” In order to understand the theory of evolution, one must know the concepts of natural and artificial selection. Artificial selection is “the breeding of plants and animals to produce desirable traits” (“artificial selection”). In layman’s terms, it simply means selective breeding in that organisms of desired traits are mated with other organisms of similar desired traits. “Artificial selection provides a model that helps us further understand natural selection” (“Lines of Evidence”). Natural selection is “a process in which differential adaptation of organisms to their environment selects those traits that will be passed on with greater frequency from one generation to the next” (Krogh 255). This concept was first discovered by Charles Darwin, who is known as the Father of Evolution. More importantly, he is most famous for the finches he studied on the Galapagos Islands, which he learned after a period of time evolved from 13 species of finch. Although natural selection scientifically supports the theory of evolution, it is highly debated. There are those people who deeply believe in the Bible and God’s creation of the world. Then there are those scientists and analyzers who accept this theory and believe that “all living things on Earth ultimately are descended from a single, ancient ancestor” (Krogh 255) and have evolved over time. No matter which belief may be truthful, there is plenty of evidence to support the theory of evolution. Radiometric dating and fossils allow us to get certain prints of organisms and compare them to the dates we find. Also, morphology and vestigial characters help show how an organism’s structure has lost its original function over a period of time.


References/Works Cited: "Artificial Selection." Lines of Evidence. 2006. The University of California Museum of Paleontology, Berkeley and Regents of the University of California, Web. 25 Sep 2009. <http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/lines/IVAartselection.shtml>. "artificial selection." The American Heritage® New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005. 25 Sep. 2009. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/artificial selection>. Krogh , David. A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. Print.
Natural and Artificial Selection Rachel McCain Natural selection is the phenomena in which organisms better-adapted to the environment in which they live, survive and live out other organisms not as well-adapted to the environment. This causes the inferior organisms to die out and the dominant organisms that survive pass on the genetic traits to the next generation. The process continues until the better-adapted organisms are far more superior compared to others and have many adaptive traits which allow them to withstand and flourish in their area of habitation. An example of natural selection goes back to Charles Darwin. Darwin observed finches in the Galapagos Islands and found that the birds better-adapted to eat cactus were able to obtain more food. The birds had pointed and slender beaks that allowed them to get into small crevices. The better-adapted birds passed on their genetic traits so that birds with better-adapted beaks survived and birds ill-suited in ways of getting food, aka having beaks not suited to the environment, died out. This is a perfect example of natural selection. Natural selection is just as the term is called, “natural”. Artificial selection is the manipulation of species to get a desired species for oneself. Artificial selection is the process in which humans select and reproduce organisms for themselves that are the most beneficial. An example of artificial selection is when people, or humans, select a particular breed of horse and continue to reproduce certain breeds of horses together to get the specific type of horse desired, such as breeding two prized show horses together to produce an Olympic winner. Natural and artificial selection are both two theories of evolution that develop over time, contributing to the statement that all forms of life are continually changing. Sources: Port, Tami, . "Natural and Artificial Selection: Mechanism of Evolution: Biological Change in Wild & Domestic Animals." suite101.com. 06 Dec 2007. Tami Port, Web. 22 Sep 2009. <http://geneticsevolution.suite101.com/article.cfm/natural_and_artificial_selection>. "Selection.." Academic Search Complete. 6th. Columbia: Columbia Electronic Encylcopedia, 2009. Web. "Early Theories of Evolution: Darwin and Natural Selection." Darwin and Natural Selection. 26 Mar 2009. Dennis O'Neil, Web. 22 Sep 2009. <http://anthro.palomar.edu/evolve/evolve_2.htm>.


Future of Life on Earth and the Possibilities
Julia Osmolski

Flying cars, vast metropolises of steel and metal, vehicles which take humans to space, life preserving medical technology, being able to prolong death, immortality, peace on earth; these are all ideas which the humans of the present have attributed to the future. Past and present humanity has always been fascinated with what the future. The question which every human being thinks about at least once during their life is what will life on earth be like in the future? Because it is impossible to see in the future this question really has no definitive answer, however with the scientific knowledge we know about the past and the present, scientist and everyone can surmise what life in the future may hold.

Will life be longer in the future? It is believed that in the future the life expectancy of the average human could be extended to be from one hundred and twenty-five year to two hundred years (Burdyuzha 3). This is what many human beings in the present wish for, to live longer lives. Imagine living and extra hundred years. All the knowledge you would have time to attain, all the places you would have time to see, all the people you would have time to meet and get to know. The only problem with this happening for the future is that the length of time which human beings can live is connected closely with the biosphere. With passing time the biospheres ability to give the ecosystem what is necessary to preserve life on earth is decreasing with the rapid increase of human population (Burdyuzha 3). The human habitat, earth, is constantly changing and it is not changing in the direction to prolong life but to shorten it. This is why it is important for all humans to think about what must be done to make sustainable use of earth (Burdyuzha 3). Longer life in the future would be extraordinary; this is why it is important to become proactive in caring for the earth now in order to help preserve it for all future possibilities.

Work Cited: Burdyuzha V., and Grigoriĭ S. Khozin. The Future of the Universe and the Future of Our Civilization. VCU Google Scholar 23 Sept. 2009. <http://books.google.com/books?id=V7zhUBg1qesC&lpg=PA206&ots=kgHXlgDtHE&dq=the%20future%20of%20life%20on%20earth&lr=&pg=PA368#v=onepage&q=the%20future%20of%20life%20on%20earth&f=false>

Biodiversity
Daniela Harvey
Biodiversity-Put simply, the diversity of earth’s life. Biodiversity can be thought of as a complex CITY, the different nationalities that can be found in the city are slight metaphors for the EXTREME diversity of all the life around us. This ranges from genes to entire ecosystems, also including the ecological and evolutionary processes that sustain it. Genetic diversity produces the variations one is able to see in any given life form. It has been argued by scientists alike that our lives are indeed dependent upon the biodiversity that surrounds us(“Introduction” 16). It is incredible what is constrained to the term “biodiversity”, below is a drawing that helps explain where Genetic Diversity exists based off of four bullet points from source (Chiles, Cullman, Laverty, Sterling 6). A single individual Between individuals of a population- Between Different populations (in a single species) Between different species The 1.75 million species that are discovered and described by today’s scientists only represent a fraction of that that is yet to be found. An estimated 13 to 20 million is most frequently agreed upon by scientists, but it ranges from 3.6 million to 117.7 million (Chiles, Cullman, Laverty, Sterling 1). Why, with all the advances we have made today in science have we not found even an appropriate estimate for the species and organisms yet to BE found? This seems like a rhetorical question to me, but how would one know how many more species are to be found if one hasn’t found the species yet? Regardless, the exact number of species to be found is still unknown today in part because the definition of a species is not agreed upon. It is also somewhat ironic that the advance in genetic analyses helps only to create more questions and complications as to the amount of species that are yet to be found. We are extremely dependent upon the biodiversity we help to make up. Two important examples of our dependence being our food source and the medicine on which we depend. According to Steve Connor our extreme dependence upon the biodiversity of our surrounding environment stems all the way down to the oxygen we breath and the food we eat. Due to the rich biodiversity today, forty percent of the prescriptions written today are made up of natural compounds that are found in the different species that help make up our environment (Connor 29). Without the species to contribute to the cycles of compounds, where would medicine be today? Works Cited "Introduction." Biodiversity. Ed. Debra A. Miller. Michigan: Greenhaven Press, 2008. Print Laverty, Melina F., Eleanor J. Sterling, Amelia Chiles, and Georgina Cullman. Biodiversity 101. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2008.

Emari Ready
Biology 101
Professor Chupp
September 25, 2009

Water, to many it is our daily necessity to live our lives. We use it for our hygiene; brushing our teeth and bathing, and also for consumption; to keep us hydrated and healthy. But what is water really? How much of it is really around us? Well, water is H2O meaning two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Hydrogen bonds keep those water molecules together. This is when the positive hydrogen atom of one molecule is attracted to the negative atom of another polar molecule. Plus cohesion helps water in a away stay together by attracting like molecules. It cover 75% of the Earth, and is composes 66% of vertebrates. On average one human should consume 8 glasses of water in a day. But could you imagine being a aquatic organism and have to breathe water in?, probably not. Did you know that the world’s largest living organism is aquatic? It is The Great Barrier Coral Reef, located in Australia. Thousands of other water loving organisms live here as well, but the reef is alive itself. It is along more than 600 islands (“Great”). It stretches over 1200 miles (Johnson). It is estimated that the reef brings in over 30 billion dollars in tourism costs, but global warming is affecting the coral (Johnson). Improving water flow would help the reef to sustain these changes. Another interesting fact to note about water is its unique property of heat storage, and how it is resistant to vaporization. Meaning water can get hot and stay that way for a while without evaporating, which could make life on the reef a bit more difficult for some.






Works Cited
“Great Barrier Reef.” Australian Government Culture Portal. 2007. 25 Sept. 2009. http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/greatbarrierreef/
Johnson, Ed. Jeremy Van Loon. “Great Barrier Reef Said to Face Catastrophic Damage.” Bloomberg. 2009. 25 Sept. 2009. <http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601124&sid=aQLxoWCzjg.w>

Photosynthesis

Jesus Rosas
Biology 101
Every single organism on earth requires energy in order to grow and survive. There are numerous processes through which living organism convert organic substances into energy or even sunlight into chemical energy. Thus, plants transform sunlight into chemical energy. For animals it is impossible to convert sunlight into energy, however, plants had developed a process called photosynthesis that facilitates the conversion of solar energy. However, in a more complex definition, photosynthesis is the process by which plants synthesize organic materials form inorganic raw materials in the presence of sunlight.[1] It is the conversion of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) into glucose (C12H12O6) and oxygen (O2).[2]


Now the question is; where does photosynthesis take place? Many could say that photosynthesis takes place in the plant as a whole; however, it does not. Photosynthesis takes place within the leaves. The leaves have a sandwich structure; there are two epidermal layers one on top and one at the bottom, and between those two layers the mesophyll cells. The mesophyll cells enclose all the organelles including the chloroplast, the place where photosynthesis occurs. [3]However, within the chloroplast there are small chloroplast membranes emerged in a viscous substance called stroma, these chloroplast membranes are called thylakoids. Thylakoids have a pigment­­—anything that absorbs light—called chlorophyll a which is the most active pigment during photosynthesis and is also in charge of collecting visible wavelengths of sunlight. [4]
Even though photosynthesis seems to be a simple process, it takes place in two different stages; 1) Light Reactions; 2) Calvin Cycle. During the light reactions photosystem II and I collect sunlight in order to power the electrons located in photosystems. Once the electrons are powered up, they are released moving up to the primary electron acceptor, as they are moving up, solar energy increases their energy state. Thus the increase of energy helps split water molecules because of the energy imbalance. Following their movement towards the primary electron acceptor is the transfer of electrons through two electron transport chain. As the electrons are moving down the electron transport chain, they are supplying the energy required to synthesize ATP because they are realizing energy in order to get to their lowest energy state. Then, electrons are taken by NADP+ in order to form NADPH, transferring electrons to the Calvin Cycle where they are used to make sugars, in this case glucose. During the Calvin Cycle electrons are brought in as well as atmospheric CO2 molecules. However, the Calvin cycle is divided in four phases: 1) Carbon fixation; 2) Energizing; 3) Product synthesis; 4) Regeneration. In the first phase CO2 molecules come in through the leaves of the plant. The CO2 molecules are then fixed into a sugar, Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). Since RuBP is a low energize sugar, it interacts with the ATP created during the light reaction, then they receive energized electrons from NADPH, now the low energy sugar has become and energized sugar, G3P (glucose and other derivates), capable of being use a food. [5] Then some G3P molecules are taken again. They are converted back into RuBP and the molecules go through the same process once again.






























Global warming
Jessica Butler

Global warming is a serous problem that we are facing today and we all should pitch in to make sure that we don’t destroy the Earth we have to live on. Global warming can be defined as the gradual increase in the Earth’s atmospheric temperature that causes corresponding changes in climate. This is bad news for everyone because that means that our winters will be hot and the summers will be scorching! Part of the problem with global warming is an overload or excess amount of carbon dioxide in the air. But we can’t just eliminate carbon dioxide because it’s everywhere. When cars drive down the road the gas in their tanks is being burned and it comes out as carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide also comes from factories and even from us. When we breathe in oxygen, we breathe out carbon dioxide. The massive amount of trees in forests used to offset the amount of oxygen in the air but since so many of them have been cut down or burned down, there are very little other options for trying to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the air. Since the main source of carbon dioxide in the air comes from cars, some car companies have taken a big step and made hybrid cars. These cars still use gasoline but they also use an electric motor which is the primary functioning motor in the car. Its these improvements that will help reduce the amount of pollution in the air but will also give the Earth a decent chance to make up for what man has messed up.

Krogh, David. A brief guide to biology with physiology. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. Print.




Exponential Growth and Population Control
Jonathan Tyktor
For the last two hundred years, the total population of the Earth has been growing at an exponential rate. This rate, if it is allowed to continue, could possibly put a massive strain on the world’s resources; these resources include economic resources such as fuel and building materials, but most importantly to human survival is the resource of food (Malthus). Thomas Malthus, a British scholar, theorized that a rapidly-expanding global population would degenerate into chaos in an attempt for individuals and states to secure these resources.

This recent growth in population is mainly due to the Industrial Revolution, a time in Earth’s history when more efficient processes for the manufacture and distribution of products were developed and lead to the rise of. These industrial processes allowed for more ready access to food, developments in medical science, and more sanitary conditions for the populace at large (in hospitals, in public, etc.); these factors all allowed for increased the life span for human beings (Rempel). The longer and healthier that people lived, the higher potential for those people to have offspring. As advancements in science and industry took leaps and bounds for the next two centuries, the population responded accordingly.

Today, however, the Earth’s resources are beginning to feel the effect of the rising population. To help combat this problem, and prevent the circumstances that Malthus predicted, several governments have taken steps in order to halt the growth in their own countries. The People’s Republic of China has had birth control programs since August 1956, but has had more visible success (at least in urban areas) with the recent one-child for every family policy. India has had enforced and volunteer sterilization laws for its populace, and actively tries to make knowledge of birth control prevalent. However, these two countries are still the two most rapidly growing countries in the world despite these efforts (Library of Congress). With that in mind, it doesn’t seem like the growth of the world’s human population will be stopped anytime soon.

WORKS CITED
Malthus, Thomas. An Essay on the Principle of Population. 1798. 24 September, 2009. http://www.econlib.org/library/Malthus/malPop.html
Rempel, Gerhard. The Industrial Revolution. 1998. 22 September, 2009. http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc2/lectures/industrialrev.html
US Library of Congress. “Country Studies.” 1998. 25 September, 2009. http://countrystudies.us/







Cloning
Yaconiello, Christopher
The broad definition of cloning is creating an exact duplicate of the material being cloned whether it is just a strand of DNA or an entire organism. There are three specific kinds of cloning that will be discussed: DNA cloning, reproductive cloning, and therapeutic cloning. (HGP) DNA cloning is gene replication on the most basic molecular level. (HGP) Reproductive cloning is the other extreme from DNA cloning in respect that instead of just creating a new strand of DNA it is creating a completely new organism. (HGP) The middle of the two extremes is therapeutic cloning which clones more than just DNA but less than an entire organism. (HGP) Therapeutic cloning is the process of cloning embryos. (HGP) Gene sequencing is the main focus of DNA replication which is a gargantuan piece of the gene puzzle which is used to facilitate the treatment of certain genetic disorders as well as the genetic engineering of crops. (HGP) Endangered species breeding is now a possibility due to reproductive cloning which we can use to enlarge a population which is threatened. (HGP) More Research is needed before scientists can attempt cloning an extinct animal strictly because the donor egg and womb would be of a different species. (HGP) However therapeutic cloning is still in its baby stages but once the technology is out the idea is to take a single cell and grow a tissue for a specific patient to eliminate the need for organ donors as well as replace cells that have degenerative properties like sickle cell anima. (HGP)

WORKS CITED
"Human Genome Project ". Human Genome Project . September 25, 2009
<http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/cloning.shtml>.








Mitosis
Jeremy Thompson
Mitosis is a form a cellular division which results in the formation of two genetically identical daughter cells. Mitosis only occurs in eukaryotes as prokaryotes reproduce by a process called binary fission. There are seven steps to the process of mitosis and it occurs frequently in eukaryotic organisms. The seven steps are:

Interphase: The cell is preparing for division. The cell spends most of its time in interphase. There are 3 phases in Interphase, G1, S, and G2. The two G periods are gaps and the S period is synthesis of chromosomes.
Prophase: Chromatin in the nucleus begins to condense and becomes visible as chromosomes. Centrioles begin moving to opposite ends of the cell and fibers extend from the centromeres
Prometaphase: The nuclear membrane dissolves. Proteins attach to the centromeres creating the kinetochores. Microtubules attach at the kinetochores and the chromosomes begin moving.
Metaphase: Spindle fibers align the chromosomes along the middle of the cell nucleus. This helps to ensure that each new nucleus will receive one copy of each chromosome.
Anaphase: The paired chromosomes separate at the kinetochores and move to opposite sides of the cell.
Telophase: Chromatids arrive at opposite poles of cell, and new membranes form around the daughter nuclei.
Cytokinesis: The cell splits into its two separate daughter cells. In animal cells, cytokinesis results when a fiber ring contracts, pinching the cell into two daughter cells, each with one nucleus. In plant cells, the rigid wall requires that a cell plate be synthesized between the two daughter cells.

Works Cited http://www.biology.arizona.edu/Cell_bio/tutorials/cell_cycle/cells3.html

Melissa Grant
Dead Zones Dead zones are becoming more and more evident every year causing difficulty for life forms and human beings to function and sustain life. In 1910, about four dead zones were existent, but currently approximately 405 dead zones are present all around the coast. (Environment News Service) They negatively affect our environment, but the creation of these deadly areas is by our human intervention of the nitrogen cycle and the use of nitrogen for farming which ultimately departs as runoff. (Krogh, 2007) Dead zones occur when excess nutrients, primarily nitrogen and phosphorus, enter coastal waters and help fertilize blooms of algae. When these microscopic plants die and sink to the bottom, they provide a rich food source for bacteria, which in the act of decomposition consume dissolved oxygen from surrounding waters. (Environment News Service) The abundance of nutrients refers to the term eutrophication. Main causes of dead zones to occur are fertilizer runoff and fossil-fuel use. (Biello) For example, one of the most common and largest dead zones in the United States is the Gulf of Mexico “dead zone” experiences a great deal of nutrient pollution and the effects of this area results in depletion of sea animals and the killing of fish living in the waters. (Krogh, 2007) As stated before, the cause of dead zones is apparent and is caused by human intervention. To solve this issue we need to reduce the nutrients that are flowing into the ecosystem to save animals lives and species that live in the aquatic environment. (Krogh, 2007) Works Cited: Biello, David. Oceanic Dead Zones Continue to Spread. 15 August 2008. Scientific American. Web. 23 Sept. 2009. <http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=oceanic-dead-zones-spread&page=3> “Environment News Service.” Once Rare, Coastal Dead Zones Are Multiplying Worldwide. 15 August 2008. Web. 23 Sept. 2009.<http://www.ensnewswire.com/ens/aug2008/2008-08-15-01.asp> Krogh, David. A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. Print.

Bioremdiation
Erika Robinson

Bioremediation can be defined as a natural process that uses environmental organisms to cure organic pollution.(Cornell) This method can be done by inserting biological organisms with fertilizer, or an element like oxygen to increase the size of the organism. When the organism experiences its rapid growth it will then be used to break down the pollutants.(Cornell) The bioremediation process can be used for things such as oil spills, pesticides that have been eroded by bacteria, and also for cleaning up dangerous contaminants.There are a variety of different examples of technology used for this natural process. Some are bioventing, landfarming, and bioreactors. (bionewsonline) The technology of bioremediation can be categorized into two different sites called in situ and ex situ. The in situ site does the treating of polluted material while the ex situ does the removing of the material and transfers it to another area. (bionewsonline) This natural process has advantages and disadvantages. Some advantages that were found are that it has the lack of producing toxic by-products, eliminates unwanted chemicals, its less expensive than other natural processes, and it can be used for the targeted problem. (Woodrow)Although bioremediation has a various amount of advantages it has a few disadvantages as well. The few disadvantages are that it takes the process a longer time to eliminate pollutants; it must be carefully supervised to make sure the process is effective, and last is that it is necessary to have more research for locations with complex pollutants.(Woodrow) Today bioremediation is used as a natural method to clean or eliminate harmful chemicals, by using organisms or their enzymes in order to change a polluted environment into a healthier one. (bionewsonline)http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/help/temp_presentations/kim/bioremediation.htm http://www.bionewsonline.com/w/what_is_bioremediation.htm http://ei.cornell.edu/biodeg/bioremed/





FOREST
Approximately seven percent of the Earth’s surface consists of forests. Forests provide a safe haven to over a billion organisms such as trees, deers, bears, and even raccoons. Both biotic and abiotic communities are able to live in the same environment. Generally, a forest is described as an open, outdoor, natural piece of land, or in scientific terms it is defined as “the trees and other plants in a large densely wooded area”. There are many different kinds of forests; two highly important are the tropical and temperate.
Tropical rain forests cover twenty-three percent of the Earth's land surface. They are common in South America and Asia. Trees in the Tropical forests can range from anywhere between one hundred to two-hundred feet. They help regulate climate and temperature. They are found near the equator; therefore they have warmer weather then other rain forests such as the subtropics.
Often known as deciduous forests, temperate forests grow in the polar and tropic regions. Average temperature in temperate forests is around 50 °F, and they get an average of 30 to 60 inches of rainfall every year. Temperate forests are home to animals of all shapes and sizes like cardinal, squirrel, grizzly bears, black bears, and polar bears. Temperate forests also host many different species of tall trees like maple, birch, beech, oak, hickory, and sweet gum. Most trees lose their leaves in the winter, as trees start to shut down due to cold weather.
Whether it’s a tropical or temperate forest, they provide valuable resources for people, like natural medicine and a healthy food supply. Without forests, many organisms would be homeless and living things would be deprived of oxygen, which is highly necessary for survival. Deforestation is a major issue in the ecosystem today. Without trees, there would be no forests and without forests there would be no life!

Works Cited
Schaffner, Brynn, and Kenneth Robinson. “Tropical Rain Forest.” Blue Planet Biomes . West Tisbury Elementary School, 2009. Web. 22 Sept. 2009. <http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/>.
“Temperate Forest.” GLOBIO. N.p., 2009. Web. 21 Sept. 2009. <http://www.globio.org/‌glossopedia/‌article.aspx?art_id=3#>.















What is Bioremediation? Paulene Anne Pineda Bioremediation is a type of process that uses microorganism, like yeast, to restore land that is congested of chemical wastes. The process consists of breaking down the wastes and converting it to CO₂ and water. This brings up the two ways this process can take place, aerobic and anaerobic, meaning, in this case, whether there is a presence of oxygen or not throughout the process. In order for bioremediation to work, first of all, the microorganisms being used must be in healthy and in active conditions. This is especially important so that detoxifying the area can be at its optimum point and can eliminate a large amount of the contaminants. It can be broken down into two major parts called situ and ex situ. The difference between the two is the location at which the contamination is treated, situ, treating the material at the site and ex situ, treating the removal of the contamination but at a site other than that it is located. Situ is somewhat better than ex situ, in that it is cost effective, less dust, and releases less contaminants. Although situ is somewhat better than ex situ, ex situ is a faster process that is easier to control and can treat a larger amount of contaminants than situ. You may ask where bioremediation has been used. It has been used to clean crude oil spills in our oceans and in contaminated soils, too. But overall, many of the microorganisms are still being studied and tested to improve and see the remedial effects.

works cited: http://www.bioworldusa.com/product/bioremediation/, http://www.biobasics.gc.ca/english/View.asp?x=741 , http://www.biobasics.gc.ca/english/View.asp?x=741 http://www.bionewsonline.com/w/what_is_bioremediation.htm


Melina Hernandez

Genetic Variation
Sexual Reproduction: Asexual reproduction in ferns


In sexual reproduction, two gametes, a sperm and an egg, from two different donors are required to produce the zygote or the fertilized egg. In asexual reproduction, there are two systems that can occur to produce an embryo or zygote without the fusion of gametes.
The first system is apogamy, through which some ferns are reproduced. In apogamy, the sporangium produced 32 diploid cells instead of 64 haploid cells because of a malfunction in meiosis. The cells failed to go through the second phase of meiosis, or the mitotic division, in order to produce the 64 daughter cells. However, the 32 diploid cells do produce gametophytes, which are called prothalli. The difference of a prothallus produced by apogamy is that it does not contain the two sex organs, archegonia and antheridia, required for fertilization. Instead, the prothallus formed asexually is able to produce a small plantlet, which is able to survive on its own with a root, stem, and leaves. The leaves on the plantlet are able to bear apogamous diploid spores that are reproducible( Moran, 39).
The second system of asexual reproduction is binary fission, which is used by bacteria for reproduction. In binary fission, the chromosomes are first duplicated in the cell then the two identical sections of DNA move toward opposite ends of the cell membrane. The plasma membrane begins to perform cytokinesis, separating the DNA material. Finally a cell wall develops, creating two identical daughter cells from the original parent cell
(Farabee).




Farabee, M.J. CELL DIVISION: BINARY FISSION AND MITOSIS 06 June, 2007.
Web. 23 September, 2009.

Moran, Robbin C. A Natural History of Ferns. Portland: Timber Press, Inc., 2004. Print.







Evolution The theory of evolution was developed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace. Evolution occurs when a change is being made from one generation to the next. Evolution can be based upon genes being passed from generation to generation which produces traits. These traits vary within the population and shows heritable differences. Variations come about from mutations in genes or the transferring of genes from population to population. Evolution has many different forms like natural selection, adaptation, genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow. Two of the major forms of adaptation are natural selection and genetic drift. Natural selection occurs when traits are being passed from one organism to the next in order to reproduce for other generations. Genetic drift occurs when processes produces changes in the traits of a population. Genetic drift usually occurs in small populations. The outcomes of evolution are adaptation, co-evolution, co-operation, speciation, and extinction. Adaptation is when an organism is able to live in its habitat in safe conditions. Speciation is when a species divides into two or more different species. In the theory of Evolution, it is believed that all organisms can from a common ancestor. Evolution is the product of mutation in genes and processes that make the alternative common and/or rare. The increase of variation in organisms results from combinations of organisms that are able to reproduce sexually. Studies of evolution began in the late nineteenth century when living organisms change drastically over time. Evolution is one of the key concepts of how life has reached the current state we are living in. Alexis Frazier







What’s an ecosystem?

Ecosystems are communities that work together and they consist of living and non-living organisms. Ecosystems are small communities of species. Ecosystems can be very small or quite big. Ecosystems have many different components that make an ecosystem an ecosystem. Living organisms, the sun, light, heat, water, climate and soil are a part of an ecosystem. Climate can affect the ecosystems in ways such as changing temperatures. Sunlight provides energy and is essential for plant growth. Water is essential for the animals and the plants. Not all the animals and plants have to be the same in an ecosystem. A great ecosystem should have plenty of different species in it. There can be different types of ecosystems. There are two major types of ecosystem and they are Autotrophic and Heterotrophic ecosystems. Autotrophic ecosystem use sunlight as an energy source and their primary producers are a principal component. A Heterotrophic ecosystem imports organic matter from autotrophic ecosystem. There are also other types of ecosystems. There can be aquatic ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems occur in the water. There are two specific types of aquatic ecosystems. One type is a marine ecosystem. Marine ecosystems are found in salt water or ocean and they contain aquatic sea life. Another type of ecosystem is the freshwater ecosystem. The freshwater ecosystem occurs in fresh water. There are about five other ecosystems. There is the agricultural, forest, grassland, coastal, and urban ecosystems. There are different types of ecosystems in the world. The earth is dependent upon ecosystems. Ecosystems help us with our lives.

Work Cited
http://www.nhptv.org/NatureWorks/nwepecosystems.htm
http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/concept?ns=1&cp=2525
http://www.ecomii.com/dictionary/science/autotrophic-ecosystem
http://urbanext.illinois.edu/ecosystems/teacherguide1.html
http://www.geography4kids.com/files/land_ecosystem.html
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Aquatic_ecosystem
http://www.pbs.org/earthonedge/ecosystems/index.html

By: Kiara Williams







Plasma membrane, the outer layer of the cells. It surrounds the cytoplasm of the cell. The purpose of the plasma membrane is to help the cell maintain homeostasis.
The membrane holds the cell contents together. It controls the cellular transportation. It helps regulate nutrients entering and waste materials exiting the cell. It uses endocytosis and exocytosis to transport substances in and out of the cell. Exocytosis allows large amounts of waste to leave the cell.Energy is not needed for passive transport in the plasma membrane.The membrane is made up of phospholipid bi-layer,proteins and cholesterol and coated on its outer cover with carbohydrate chains. Phospholipid bi-layer is the main component of the plasma membrane. Proteins in the plasma membrane are surrounded by the phospholipid bi-layer. Phospholipid is made up of fatty substances, they are very oily. The plasma membrane is mostly made up of fluid, because it is mostly fluid, it is also known as the fluid mosaic model.This causes small molecules like oxygen, glycerol and carbon dioxide to move through the plasma membrane freely. Large molecules like glucose and sucrose don't pass through the membrane easily. You can find the plasma membrane in both animal and plant cells. The plasma membrane also allows communication between the cell and the outer environment. Osmosis and diffusion are used for molecules to pass through the plasma membrane. Diffusion moves molecules from a place with high concentration to a lower concentration place. Osmosis moves water molecules from a higher concentration region to a lower concentration region. Diffusion and osmosis are similar, with the exception of osmosis only deals with water molecules






Work Cited:

Davidson, Michael. "Molecular Expressions." Plasma Membrane. Dec. 13, 2004. <http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/plasmamembrane/plasmamembrane.html>.

"Bio-Medicine." 2003. <http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-dictionary/Plasma_membrane/>.

Diagram Citation:
Google images


Fungi- Camilla Jones Fungi are eukaryotes. They help decompose dead plants and animals to create new nutrients. Fungi use enzymes to digest so they can eat. They digest outside of their bodies, and let loose enzymes to break down the soil so they can get nutrients. There are seven types of fungi: Chytridiomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota. The most common group is the Basidiomycota, which includes mushrooms. Fungi produce spores that spread, mostly by the wind. The spores can be sexual or asexual, meaning that they can produce with another partner (sexual) or they can produce offspring on their own self (asexual). Some fungi are parasites so that means that they attach to plants, animals, and other compatible hosts and get nutrients from them. Fungi come in different shapes and sizes. They can come in the form of molds, yeasts, mushrooms, the shape of a cup, jelly looking, and can look like selves. There are over 70,000 species out there. All fungi is not edible, in fact, some are deadly to animals including humans. For example, if the destroying angel is ingested, the poison will spread quickly and damage the liver and kidneys before the consumer realizes it. There is a plus side to fungi; if it wasn’t for fungi we would have some of the best products out there, such as penicillin for the ill, yeast for bread and beer, and mushrooms to pick on top of pizza. Fungi play an important role in the world and it deserves to have a kingdom of its own. Works Cited Bora, Chandramita. "Types of Fungi". September 23, 2009 http://www.buzzle.com/articles/types-of-fungi.html.
"Characteristics of the Fungi". September 25, 2009 http://www.biology-online.org/articles/fungi/characteristics_fungi.html.

"Edible and Poisonous Fungi". September 25, 2009 http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/Andes/8046/edible.html.
Kornfield, Ari. "Natural Perspective: Fungus Kingdoom. September 23, 2009 http://www.perspective.com/nature/fungi/index.html. Volk, Thomas J.. "The Kingdom Fungi". Unviersity of Wisconsin-La Crosse. September 24, 2009 http://www.uwlax.edu/BIOLOGY/VOLK/FUNGI3/sld009.htm.
















Triploid Oysters
By: Princess I. Bethea Triploid oysters are very unique organisms. These oysters are altered genetically so that they will have three sets of chromosomes hence the name “triploid”. Genetically modifying foods in ways such as having more than two sets of chromosomes is very common. It is responsible for the variety of vegetables and fruits that are in grocery stores now. Agronomists developed this process because they were able to produce a larger product at a faster rate. Scientists are able to make this happen by not allowing the oyster’s egg cells to completely mature. They obtain this by applying heat, pressure, and a chemical shock which allows the egg to keep both sets of chromosomes. Thus leaving the sperm to deposit another which makes the third set of chromosomes. Along with this process, Triploid oysters are also genetically modified so that they are not able to reproduce. This too contributes to producing larger and better qualities of oysters that can be sold all year round. Oyster farming is becoming a growing industry. Since triploid oysters are not able to reproduce, they are able to grow much faster and firmer. Regular diploid oysters cannot be sold year round because they are not suitable to eat when they are in their reproduction stage which makes them mushy. Triploid oysters were first successfully bred in the state of Washington. Professor Kenneth Chew lead the research conducted on developing the oysters at a hatchery at the University of Washington. His research is now used specifically for the seafood market. Currently, the state of Washington is one of the nation’s top producers of oysters. They send their oysters all over the nation, even to Virginia’s own Chesapeake Bay. Works Cited Blankenship, Karl. "VIMS scientists urges expanded testing of 'triploid' oysters." The Chesapeake Bay Journal (Nov. 2003): 2. 24 Sep. 2009 <http://www.bayjournal.com/article.cfm?article=769>.
Bishop, Don. "Triploid Oysters." Triploid Oysters. Bishop Aquatic Technologies,Inc. 24 Sep. 2009 <http://www.fukuina.com/articles/mar_apr01.htm>.
Kwriam, Alvin L., ed. Pathbreakers. Seattle: University of Washington, 1996. Molluscan Aquaculture and the Triploid Oyster. University of Washington. 24 Sep. 2009 <http://www.washington.edu/research/pathbreakers/1983d.html>.






Genetic Variations

Microbes--Protozoa
In the late part of the seventeenth century an amateur lens maker, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, is credited to the discovery of the microbial world. Leeuwenhoek examined everything under his microscope; water, pepper tar from his teeth, saliva and even frog and horse intestine. On all these items he found microorganisms to be everywhere. Microorganisms are now known to be thriving in even the harshest of conditions. Microbes by simple definition are living forms too small to be seen with the naked eye (VanDemark and Batzing 31). Bacteria, protozoa, fungi, algae and viruses are the microbes of our world.
The largest of all microbes is the protozoa. However, even being the largest microbes, protozoa only typically get to be about 0.01-0.05mm and some as big as 0.5mm. Unable to be seen with the naked eye they can be easily found with a microscope. Although being unicellular protozoa differ greatly between cells due to organelles giving them a high degree of functional differentiation. Not being photosynthetic, a protozoa obtains its food by other means. Their pseudopodia, false foot, can be extended and used to engulf the nutrient. Digestion takes place in stomach like compartments and during digestion protozoa make and put out nitrogen that can be used by other plants and animals. With all the different kinds, protozoans are characterized by their means of mobility. The Amoebae (sarcodina) are capable of moving about due to pseudopodia. Another group is the Ciliates (ciliophora)(VanDemark). The ciliates have hundreds of little hair like cilia that propel the cell as oars would a boat. The last main group is the Flagellates (mastigophora)(VanDemark). These types of protozoa have long thread like structures called flagella that move in a sweeping motion to propel it along.
--Courtney Radford

VanDemark, Paul J. and Barry L. Batzing. The Microbes an Intro to Their Nature and Importance. California: Menlo Park, 1987


The main energy source for the human body is Carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are made up of organic elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Animals collect carbohydrates by eating various food that have them. Animals, such as humans, covert carbohydrates into an energy through the process called metabolism. Carbohydrates are found in plants. Plants create these carbohydrates during photosynthesis. Photosynthesis creates two types of carbohydrates, simple carbohydrates (sugars) and complex carbohydrates. The biggest distinction between the two is the amount of sugars it contained. Simple carbohydrates contain only one or two sugars, monosaccharides and disaccharides. Common examples of a monosaccharide are glucose and fructose. Glucose is stored in the human body for energy and fructose is the most common sugar in fruits. A disaccharide is just the combination of two monosaccharides bonded together. A common example of that is glucose and fructose bonding to create sucrose or commonly known as sugar. Then there are the complex carbohydrates. They are basically a large chain of simple carbohydrates. These carbohydrates are called polysaccharides. Once your body obtains carbohydrates they are automatically broken down into a simple carbohydrate. These sugars will end up raising you blood sugar levels because they are quickly absorbed into the bloodstream. As this is occurs the pancreas releases insulin transport the sugar from the blood to the cells to create energy. Simple carbohydrates go through this process rather quickly bring your energy down fast. Whereas complex carbohydrates take a longer time to finish this process, thus keep us energized and less hungry for a longer period of time. Due to the fact that simple sugars jump the body’s blood sugar levels so abruptly scientist have connected them to disease such as heart disease and diabetes.

"Carbohydrates." Visionlearning. Web. 25 Sept. 2009. <http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=61>.
"Learning About Carbohydrates." KidsHealth. Web. 25 Sept. 2009. http://kidshealth.org/kid/stay_healthy/food/carb.html#.








Brandy Walton (V00395833)
Biology 101-005
First Wiki Contribution
Beneath the surface of the water in a region of the Gulf of Mexico, the amount of oxygen in the water is not sufficient to support a biotic population. This hypoxic area, or area where the amount of oxygen is extremely diminished, is called a dead zone (Bruckner, 2008). Even though dead zones are defined by oxygen levels, the process to generate a dead zone begins with nitrogen, and some other natural elements (Cloern, 2007). To promote plant growth, farmers apply “biologically active nitrogen” to plants. When rain falls on the crops, the concentrated nitrogen is swept into surrounding bodies of water as runoff. The Gulf of Mexico receives around “1.5 million metric tons of nitrogen” from the Mississippi River as runoff, which causes the massive dead zone (Krogh, 2007).

Dead zones, including the Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone, are largest in months when high temperatures are prevalent because the sun provides energy for the growth of algae (“The Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone”). Algae form on top of the water and attract a large amount of bacteria, which assimilate oxygen (Krogh, 2007). This is a dilemma because the less dense freshwater of the Mississippi River lies on top of the denser saltwater of the Gulf of Mexico, thereby prohibiting atmospheric oxygen from mixing with the saltwater. The already limited supply of oxygen is then further depleted when the algae die, because they consume more oxygen when they decay (“The Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone”).

Thus, the severely oxygen deprived lower depths cause fish to flee and immobile organisms to perish, a consequence that significantly damages the cycle of life in waters (“The Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone”). This process, also known as eutrophication, accounts for many of the dead zones in the world today (Cloern, 2007).


Works Cited

Bruckner, Monica. "What is the Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone?" Microbial Life: Educational Resources. 06/08/2008. Science Education Resource Center at Carleton College, Web. 21 Sep 2009. <http://serc.carleton.edu/microbelife/topics/deadzone/>.

Cloern, James (Lead Author); Timothy Krantz (Contributing Author); J. Emmett Duffy (Topic Editor). 2007. "Eutrophication." In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). [First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth September 22, 2006; Last revised December 18, 2007; Retrieved September 22, 2009].< http://www.eoearth.org/article/Eutrophication>.

"The Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone." Dead Zone home. The Science Museum of Minnesota, Web. 22 Sep 2009. <http://www.smm.org/deadzone/top.html>.

Krogh, David. A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. Print.

Diagram citations

The Eutrophication Process. Photograph. Dead Zones. Conservation Science Institute. Web. 22 Sept. 2009.
<http://www.conservationinstitute.org/ocean_change/ocean_pollution/deadzones.htm>.

Mississippi River Basin. Photograph. Ahoy- Mac's Web Log: Naval, Maritime, Australian History and more. The Naval Historical Society of Australia, Inc., 1984. Web. 22 Sept. 2009. <http://ahoy.tk-jk.net/macslog/TheTopTenRiversoftheWorld.html>.




***NOTE: I also posted this as a separate page under the topic "Dead Zones."










Ecosystems and Biodiversity By: Tenese Benton An ecosystem is a place where we co-exist with plants, animals and non-living organisms to work together to make living possible. There are many different ecosystems and each one is designed to the species living there, so they will be able to survive. Many scientists are worried that global warming will destroy a lot of our ecosystems due to the fact that many of them would not be able to adapt to the changes as fast as global warming is moving, therefore it would result in the termination of the ecosystem. For example, rising temperatures due to global warming would continue to make surface temperatures of the oceans rise which would result in the loss of nourishment for many living creatures in the ocean. This is why we are asked to do things to help slow down the process of global warming to save many of our ecosystems. Biodiversity plays a big role in ecosystems, it means just what it says; biological diversity, which is the variety and diversity of species. Having more than one type a species gives each creature their own role and responsibility to help in environmental changes, such as global warming. We as humans depend on biodiversity in order to get our natural recourses, but the ecosystems and the species living in them are becoming extinct due to the things we are doing, such as tearing down rainforest and pollution and other things we do that are killing the species we co-exist with. So we have to raise awareness, and make it more known the damage that is taking place all over the world so we can start helping our ecosystems instead of killing them. Works cited: Book Online Reference Center. 2005. World Book, Inc Mastrandrea, Michael D., and Stephen H. Schneider. "Global warming." World. http://www.worldbookonline.com/wb/Article?id=ar226310. <p>Anup Shah, <a href="http://www.globalissues.org/article/170/why-is-biodiversity-important-who-cares">Why Is Biodiversity Important? Who Cares?</a>, GlobalIssues.org, Last updated: Sunday, April 26, 2009</p> http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/node/1692
Katie Parrott Adam Chupp Wiki Essay 1 September 25, 2009 Sexual Reproduction Sexual reproduction is a process that takes place between two diploid organisms. The process is complicated, but well organized. Throughout sexual reproduction the crucial elements are the replication of DNA, mitosis and meiosis, however, this essay is going to focus on the process of meiosis. The start of sexual reproduction is sex. Sex allows for the gametes of each organism to bond with one another, one sperm to one egg. Sperm and egg cells are haploid, meaning they only contain half of the genetic information that is required for a normal cell to function; this is because they join other haploid cells. However the body does not just have haploid cells they have to be created through a process called meiosis. Meiosis only occurs in germ line, or sex cells. This process contains eight specific steps that are separated into two groups, meiosis 1 and meiosis 2. Meiosis 1 starts by the prophase 1 of the original diploid cell where the chromosomes become very condensed and begin “crossing over”, crossing over is a process where the chromosomes share information by “swapping” chromotids, this causes genetic variation. Next, Metaphase 1 takes place, during this phase the homologous pairs line up along the equator of the cell and become attached to the spindle fibers. In anaphase 1 the homologous pairs are split apart and they go to opposite ends of the cell. When the paired chromosomes are on opposite ends of the cell, the division of the cell begins to take place, this is telophase 1, and then cytokinesis occurs. That is the end of meiosis1. Meiosis 2 begins with prophase 2, it is basically the same process as prophase 1, the chromosomes become condensed and are preparing to pull apart again, however; no crossing over occurs. The next phase is metaphase 2, where again, the chromosomes line up along the equator and are attached to the spindle fibers. In anaphase 2 the sister chromatids are split apart and move to different ends of the cells. In telophase 2 the cells begin to divide, and at the end of cytokinesis, there are four new haploid cells each of them contain half of the information as the original. During Sexual intercourse, two of these haploid cells are joined, the sperm (a male haploid cell) and an egg (a female haploid cell), this creates a zygote which is the beginning of a new organism. Works Cited David Krogh, A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology. Preparing for Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Pearson Prentice Hall , 2007. Print.


Sara Fifer Bio 101 Adam Chupp 25 September 2009 Global Warming and the Habitability of Earth Global warming is said to be caused by mankind warming up the atmosphere and shows no sign of cooling down. Some are afraid this increasing temperature of our earth is going to kill our animals, people, and planet. Some argue that this rise in temperature could be a good thing because it is better than if our atmosphere were cooling, which would be more difficult to adapt to than atmospheric warming. It is hard to determine whether this environmental change is true because it is hard to predict a global climate change in future centuries. Even if global warming is not a problem, there are ways to help prevent it. A No Regrets Global Warming Policy was established to ensure that we reduce the amount of greenhouse gases released into the air, enhance the Federal Flood Insurance Program from protection of a rise in sea level and flooding, reduce air traffic that could help to eliminate greenhouse gases and save time and money, recycling more, and build nuclear plants (Friel). There are also many ways for people to contribute to this concern by carpooling, buying hybrid or fuel-efficient cars, plant trees, and unplug un-used electronics (Diep). NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies have recorded that the earth’s temperature has increased 1.4 degrees since 1880 with much of the increase in recent years. Areas most affected include the Arctic, Alaska, Canada and parts of Russia with the ice, glaciers, and mountain snow rapidly melting away. With the sea temperatures rising, coral reefs are dying off. The IPCC fears that global warming could lead to shortages of food and water, an extinction of species, and changes in the amount of precipitation (Yeatman). Whether or not Works Cited Friel, J.J. Should We Worry About Global Warming? 22 Sept. 2009<http://www.enter.net/~jjfhome/globalwarming.htm>. Diep, Sandy. Global Warming International Center 10 Jan. 2009. 22 Sept. 2009<http://www.globalwarming.net/>. Yeatman, William. Global Warming 101 4 Feb. 2009. 23 Sept. 2009<http://www.globalwarming.org/category/global-warming-101/>.

Emily Jackson What is an Ecosystem? An ecosystem is defined as a community of living and non living things that all work together (“NatureWorks”). There are many different ecosystems that make up our world today. Ecosystems come in a variety of sizes and contain much life. Each part of an ecosystem depends on other organisms, living and non living. For example, if the soil does not have enough of the right nutrients, then the plants in that ecosystem will not live. There are living organisms that are divided into three categories that include producers, consumers, and decomposers. The major parts that go into an ecosystem include the soil, atmosphere, heat, light, water, and living organisms. Soil is an important part of an ecosystem as it provides nutrients that are important to plants that are in the ecosystem. The soil keeps plants in place and also works to hold water so that the plants and animals in that ecosystem can live. The atmosphere is another critical part in an ecosystem. The atmosphere gives plants and animals the oxygen and carbon dioxide needed to survive. There would be no life in an ecosystem without the atmosphere. The energy given off by the sun is essential to the survival of an ecosystem. If the sun did not exist then there would be no photosynthesis and without that the planet would cease to exist. Also, without water there would be no life at all. Water is an important part of cells and it helps the plants receive and contribute nutrients they need for survival (“NatureWorks”). Sadly the world’s ecosystems are deteriorating as a result of human interference and expansion, so it is important for humans to understand the importance of keeping the earth a clean and happy place to live. "Ecosystems ." NatureWorks. Web. 25 Sep 2009. <http://www.nhptv.org/natureworks/nwepecosystems.htm>. Stephanie Renee Benner Sexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction is the process of creating new life that occurs when two gametes, or sex cell, combined in a process known as syngamy (more commonly referred to as fertilization). The gametes are formed in the reproductive organs of the parent(s) that are called the gonads. To create the gametes, which is what makes reproduction possible; meiosis takes place in the gonads. Even though the process of meiosis has some similarities to the process of mitosis, meiosis is dedicated specifically to the replication of reproductive cells. Meiosis has two rounds of cell division, Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Each of these rounds has four steps; prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Meiosis I begins with Prophase I. During prophase I homologous pairs of chromosomes become intertwined and swap genetic material, this swapping is commonly referred to as “crossing over”. Metaphase I is the next step to take place; metaphase I is a process where the homologous pairs line up on the equator of the cell. Metaphase I is followed by anaphase I, the part of the process where the homologous pairs that are lined up on the equator of the cell separate. The final step in Meiosis I is telophase I. During telophase I two haploid cells are formed from the split homologous pairs. The four steps repeat themselves in Meiosis II and the end result is 4 haploid cells. The haploid cells that are created during Meiosis are the sperm or egg cells that make reproduction possible. When the sperm and egg unite fertilization has occurred and a new life has been created. Work Cited Buckley, James M. JR. Sexual Reproduction. 2003. <http://regentsprep.org/Regents/biology/units/reproduction/sexual.cfm>



Mavis Offoha
Professor Adam Chupp
Introduction to Biology (Biol –101)
September 25, 2009

Plants are important living organisms in nature that have existed for many years. Their role on earth is to provide other organisms with oxygen, nutrition, shelter, and any man-made materials humans can derive from it. Plants are unique organisms. They are capable of providing food for themselves through a process known as photosynthesis, which is the use of sunlight to obtain ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate), or energy. Plants can be classified into two main colors, which are green plants and non-green plants. Green plants uses chlorophyll from the chloroplast, a small organelle in plants, to store energy from the sun and convert it to sugar or starch. Non-green plants go through a process called chemosynthesis, energy obtained from a chemical reaction. Plants are vital for human existence and so as humans to plants. They take out oxygen for humans to inhale, and take in carbon dioxide, which humans’ exhales.
There are different types of plants in the plants kingdom: bryophytes, angiosperms, seedless vascular plants, and gymnosperms. Bryophytes are plants that do not have a vascular system. Such plants lay low close to the ground because they are unable to transport water evenly. Examples of these plants are mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. Angiosperms are flowering plants, in other words, plants that are able to blossom. These plants depend on animals to transport pollen from plant to plant. Some examples of angiosperms are dandelions, calla lilies, and cactus. Seedless vascular plants can be classified simply based on their name. These plants are vascular plants that do not have any seed. Some may ask, without any seed, how else can these plants reproduce? The answer to this question is water. Like bryophytes, seedless vascular plants need just water to reproduce. In contrast to seedless vascular plants are gymnosperms, plants that do have seeds. Unlike the seedless plants, gymnosperms have seeds, which are not enclosed by ovarian coverings.
Plants seeds can be classified into monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous. Monocotyledonous seeds are seeds that cannot break in two. Plants from this seeds usually have fibrous roots, no thick stem, no taproots, and no branches. On the other hand, plants arising from dicotyledonous seeds have taproots holding the seeds firmly onto the ground, thick stem, and branches. A core section of a typical plant shows the back, phloem, and xylem. These parts of the plants are important to humans medicinally and otherwise. Like other organisms plants have complex parts that cannot be ignored. Its role on earth is vital to humans and as well as other animals.


WORK CITED “Chlorophyll: Plants.” Lycos Retriever, 2006. http://www.lycos.com/info/chlorophyll--plants.html
Krogh, David. A Brief Guide to Biology with physiology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007.



Samantha Waugerman Evolution: The Beginning of Life to Now When life began around 3.8 million years ago, it solely existed in the form of bacteria and archaea (Krogh, 2007). This life only existed in the early oceans. Over time, through a cellular evolutionary theory called endosymbiosis, organelles were developed. This occurred when a bacterium invaded a eukaryotic cell and over time became a permanent feature of that organism. The host provided the bacteria with food, while the bacteria allowed the host to live in a newly oxygenated atmosphere. Over time, reproduction of the organism included the reproduction of the new organelles (Krogh, 2007). These organelles, such as mitochondria or chloroplasts, allowed eukaryotic cells to have plant-like features and animal-like features. As life forms became multi-cellular, more animal and plant features become present. Animal features consisted mainly of being able to receive nourishment from other organisms or organic substances in the surrounding environment of the organism. The main plant feature is photosynthesis (Krogh, 2007). As life continued to flourish, different features of cells emerged, whether the cell had a cell membrane, or a cell wall. This was the start of plants and animals. The difference between animals having a cell membrane and plants having a cell wall is for a simple reason: Animals have cell membranes so that the cell can digest food, with a cell wall; an organism that needed to ingest its food could not because a wall cannot wrap around the food substance to create a vacuole (Krogh, 2007) Eventually, life emerged from the oceans, plants first. After plants flourished and adapted to the difference in environments, oxygen requiring animals started to emerge from the sea. As the plants and animals spread, they began to adjust and eventually evolve into new species with survival genes necessary to thrive in the specific biosphere thus slowly turning into the world today. (Krogh, 2007) Works Cited: Krogh, D. (2007) A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology. (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education, Inc.)





Elise Sale Triploid Oysters Triploid oysters have three sets of chromosomes instead of two sets. A triploid oyster gets three sets of chromosome through “applications of heat, pressure, or a chemical.” (Molluscan Aquaculture and the Triploid Oyster, pg 1) Two of the sets are from the egg cells being prevented from becoming haploid cells. The research originally was conducted on the American oyster at the University of Maine. (Molluscan Aquaculture and the Triploid Oyster, pg 1) The oysters now used are the Pacific oyster. This oyster was originally imported from Japan in the 1920s but could not survive in the North East. (Molluscan Aquaculture and the Triploid Oyster, pg 1) The United States is not the only country that uses triploid oysters. Australia also produces triploid oysters but using a different variety of oyster. The triploid oysters are better than the diploid oysters all year. In the winter and spring it is merely because the triploid oysters tend to be larger. (Hand and Nell, pg 1) In the summer however, the triploid oysters exceed the diploids considerably. This is because summer is the mating season for oysters. The diploid oysters become mushy and unpalatable during the summer months. The triploid oysters however do not have such problems because they are sterile and there for do not go through changes during the usual reproduction season in summer. The only differences in appearance between diploid and triploid oysters are the diploid are smaller, have more noticeable gonads, and do not have discoloration near the gonad region. (Hand and Nell, pg 1) The triploid oyster is a good source of food because it is larger and has a year round season unlike its diploid counterparts. Sources "Molluscan Aquaculture and the Triploid Oyster." University of Washington. 25 Sep. 2009 <http://www.washington.edu/research/pathbreakers/1983d.html>. Nell, John, and Rosalind Hand. "ScienceDirect - Aquaculture : Studies on triploid oysters in Australia : : XII. Gonad discolouration and meat condition of diploid and triploid Sydney rock oysters (Saccostrea commercialis) in five estuaries in New South Wales, Australia ." ScienceDirect - Home. 25 Sep. 2009 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T4D-3W1H3D9-2&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1024531031&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=7e2e6b2ab36774ee7c.

Katie Parrott Adam Chupp Wiki Essay 2 September 25, 2009 Sexual Reproduction Sexual reproduction is a process that takes place between two diploid organisms. The process is complicated, but well organized. Throughout sexual reproduction the crucial elements are the replication of DNA, mitosis and meiosis, however, this essay is going to focus on the process of meiosis. The start of sexual reproduction is sex. Sex allows for the gametes of each organism to bond with one another, one sperm to one egg. Sperm and egg cells are haploid, meaning they only contain half of the genetic information that is required for a normal cell to function; this is because they join other haploid cells. However the body does not just have haploid cells they have to be created through a process called meiosis. Meiosis only occurs in germ line, or sex cells. This process contains eight specific steps that are separated into two groups, meiosis 1 and meiosis 2. Meiosis 1 starts by the prophase 1 of the original diploid cell where the chromosomes become very condensed and begin “crossing over”, crossing over is a process where the chromosomes share information by “swapping” chromotids, this causes genetic variation. Next, Metaphase 1 takes place, during this phase the homologous pairs line up along the equator of the cell and become attached to the spindle fibers. In anaphase 1 the homologous pairs are split apart and they go to opposite ends of the cell. When the paired chromosomes are on opposite ends of the cell, the division of the cell begins to take place, this is telophase 1, and then cytokinesis occurs. That is the end of meiosis1. Meiosis 2 begins with prophase 2, it is basically the same process as prophase 1, the chromosomes become condensed and are preparing to pull apart again, however; no crossing over occurs. The next phase is metaphase 2, where again, the chromosomes line up along the equator and are attached to the spindle fibers. In anaphase 2 the sister chromatids are split apart and move to different ends of the cells. In telophase 2 the cells begin to divide, and at the end of cytokinesis, there are four new haploid cells each of them contain half of the information as the original. During Sexual intercourse, two of these haploid cells are joined, the sperm (a male haploid cell) and an egg (a female haploid cell), this creates a zygote which is the beginning of a new organism. Works Cited "CELL DIVISION: MEIOSIS AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION." (2007): n. pag. Web. 11 Oct 2009. <http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookmeiosis.html>. " Meiosis." (2007): n. pag. Web. 11 Oct 2009. http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/M/Meiosis.html " Meiosis Tutorial, Meiosis 1 and Meiosis II." Biology Project- Cell Biology (2004): n. pag. Web. 11 Oct 2009. <http://www.biology.arizona.edu/Cell_BIO/tutorials/meiosis/page3.html>.